;actical English^ 

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AMMAR 



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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



A PRACTICAL 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



WITH 



LESSONS 



IN 



COMPOSITION AND LETTER-WRITING. 






BY 

JUDSON PERRY WELSH, A.M., 

Professor of the English Language and Literature in the 
State Normal School, West Chester, Pa. 




PHILADELPHIA : 

CHRISTOPHER SOWER COMPANY 

G14 ARCH STREET. 



\ 






Copyright, 1889, 
By JUDSON PERRY WELSH. 



PRESS OF 

£tirirmsm <fc Co,, Philadelphia. 

Westcott & Thomson, 
Stereotypers and Electrolypers, Philada. 



PREFACE. 



It has been my aim in preparing this book to treat of 
the English language just as it is, to explain its construc- 
tions according to the logical relation of ideas as they exist 
in English thought, and not to introduce from the grammars 
of other languages terms, rules, exceptions, or explanations 
of things that have no existence in the English language. 

I have tried to keep in mind that the grammarian's prov- 
ince is to collect and arrange the facts and principles of lan- 
guage as they are exhibited in the habitual usage of the 
majority of educated speakers and writers, and that it is 
not his province to make laws for the government of the 
language nor to try to make it conform to laws that gram- 
marians have made, or have transferred from the grammars 
of inflected and, too often, dead languages. 

The object of the study of English grammar is not, pri- 
marily, " to learn to speak and write the English language 
correctly," as we have so often been told, but to acquaint 
the pupil with the logic of thought and expression, to add 
to his enjoyment of excellent literary productions, to give 
him mind-discipline, literary culture, and readiness of 
speech, and perhaps incidentally to correct a few of his 
inaccurate expressions, and to hinder- the acquisition of 
others. 

An erroneous conception of the true end of the study of 
English grammar and of the duties of the grammarian, as 



IV PREFACE. 

both are exhibited in many of the grammar books, is re- 
sponsible for the attempts of certain enthusiastic but well- 
meaning educators to banish English grammar from our 
schools. It does not seem to have occurred to them that 
their energies would be better expended in making English 
grammar true to its name. It then would embrace substan- 
tially what has now been placed under the inappropriate 
name of language lessons. 

This book has been planned so that the pupil will begin 
with the composition and study of the sentence, and will 
be made acquainted step by step, inductively, with all the 
elements which make up the sentence, and with all correct 
combinations of these elements as they are found in the 
usage of educated speakers and writers. The analysis of 
each construction is followed by a composition exercise that 
requires the pupil to use the construction in expressing his 
own thought. 

Various kinds of composition exercises, including a short 
treatise on letter-writing, with plans by which pupils may 
be led to criticise and correct their own and each other's 
compositions, have been woven into the first part of the 
book wherever the nature of the subject would permit. 

The second part of the book is a systematic study of the 
parts of speech, including their classes, properties, uses, and 
peculiarities. It is believed that teachers and pupils will 
find it an advantage to have all the facts pertaining to one 
part of speech arranged in consecutive lessons instead of 
having them scattered through the entire book. 

Sentences for illustration have been chosen with a view 
to their interest and instructiveness as well as to their gram- 
matical construction. Nothing can be gained and much 
loss is frequently occasioned by having young minds study 
the construction of sentences whose thought is beyond their 



PREFACE. V 

comprehension, and in no way connected with their experi- 
ence or interest. Few sentences of this nature will be found 
in this book. 

The system of diagrams for illustrative analysis is one 
that has grown out of my own teaching. I have long felt 
the need of a system in which the words should all be writ- 
ten on horizontal lines. Systems that require pupils to write 
on slanting or curved lines interfere with the formation of 
correct habits of penmanship, produce slovenly diagrams, 
and make it difficult for pupils in their seats to read and 
criticise black-board work. It is believed that teachers will 
appreciate the absence of these disadvantages as well as the 
simplicity of the system. 

The sentences containing errors to be corrected were 
compiled from an accumulation of faulty expressions, com- 
posed, in part, of errors clipped from newspapers and similar 
sources, and, in part, of those collected from year to year by 
my pupils, for use in class. They have been carefully clas- 
sified and placed at the end of each series of lessons on the 
parts of speech, so that they may be omitted conveniently 
when it is necessary to gain time for the study of more im- 
portant parts of the subject, or when the teacher adheres to 
the questionable theory that bad habits of speech are best 
amended by being overlooked. 

During the preparation of this work I have, of course, 
consulted many books, and have derived from them hints 
that have been helpful. I have received also valuable 
suggestions from my colleagues, and from many of my 
fellow-teachers elsewhere who have taken a kindly interest 
in the progress of the work. I am especially indebted 
to my former instructors, Francis A. March, LL.D., of 
Lafayette College, Easton, Pa., and D. J. Waller, Jr., 
Ph.D., Principal of the State Normal School at Blooms- 



vi PREFACE. 

burg, Pa., from whom both during and since the time I 
was under their instruction, I received much of the inspira- 
tion that has prompted me to make special research in 
English studies. 

My thanks are due also for encouragement received from 
Supt. Jos. S. Walton of Chester Co., Pa., Supt. R. F. Hof- 
fecker of Montgomery Co., Pa., and Prof. Addison Jones 
of Conshohocken, Pa., to whom parts of this work were 
submitted while on its way through the press. 

J. P. WELSH. 

State Normal, School, 

West Chester, Pa., June 6, 1889. 



CONTENTS. 



PART FIRST. 



PAGE 



I. INTRODUCTION.— A Brief History of the English 

Language 1-8 

II. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES AND COMPOSITION . . 9-124 

1. The Simple Sentence 9-72 

a. The Parts of Speech Defined ... 9-28 

b. The Diagram • 29-31 

c. The Three Complements 31-36 

d. The Indirect Object 37-39 

e. The Possessive Modifier 39-41 

/. A Composition Exercise 41 

g. The Appositive 42-44 

h. The Adverbial Noun 45-47 

i. Punctuation and Composition 48-52 

j. The Infinitive 52-56 

h. The Participle 56-64 

I. Independent Expressions 65-69 

m. Miscellaneous Exercises in Analysis 69-72 

2. The Compound Sentence 73-78 

3. Writing a Composition 79-81 

4. The Complex Sentence 82-110 

a. The Noun Clause 82-87 

b. The Adjective Clause 87-96 

c. The Adverb Clause 96-105 

d. Miscellaneous Extracts for Analysis 106-110 

III. LETTER-WEITING 111-120 

IV. ADDITIONAL EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION .... 121-124 



PART SECOND. 

I. THE PARTS OF SPEECH . 125-266 

1. Nouns 125-157 

a. Classes of Nouns - 125-128 

b. Gender of Nouns 128-135 

c. Number of Nouns , 135-145 

vii 



viii CONTENTS. 

Nouns — continued. page 

A. Uses of Nouns 145-147 

e. The Possessive 147-153 

/. The Parsing of Nouns 153, 154 

g. Errors in the Use of Nouns 154-157 

2. Pronouns 157-176 

a. Classes of Pronouns 157, 158 

b. Case of Pronouns 158-160 

c. Personal Pronouns 160-165 

d. Relative Pronouns 165-167 

e. Interrogative Pronouns 167 

/. Adjective Pronouns 168 

g. Parsing of Pronouns 168, 169 

h. Errors in the Use of Pronouns 169-176 

3. Verbs 176-217 

a. Classes of Verbs 176-179 

b. Tense of Verbs 179-181 

c. Mode of Verbs 182, 183 

d. Number and Person of Verbs 183-185 

e. Conjugation of Verbs 185-195 

/. Voice of Verbs 195-204 

g. Parsing of Verbs 205 

h. Errors in the Use of Verbs 206-217 

4. Adjectives 217-232 

a. Classes of Adjectives 217-220 

b. Number of Adjectives 220,221 

c. Comparison of Adjectives 221-225 

d. Parsing of Adjectives 225 

e. Errors in the Use of Adjectives 226-232 

5. Adverbs . 232-243 

a. Classes of Adverbs 232-236 

b. Comparison of Adverbs 237, 238 

c. Parsing of Adverbs 238, 239 

d. Errors in the Use of Adverbs 239-243 

6. Conjunctions 243-249 

a. Classes of Conjunctions 243-246 

b. Parsing of Conjunctions 247 

c. Errors in the Use of Conjunctions 248, 249 

7. Prepositions 249-256 

a. Classes of Prepositions 249, 250 

6. Choice of Prepositions 250-253 

c. Parsing of Prepositions 253 

d. Errors in the Use of Prepositions 254-256 

8. Interjections 256-258 

a. Sources of Interjections 257 

b. Classes of Interjections 258 

c. Parsing of Interjections 258 

d. Errors in the Use of Interjections ....... 258 

II. A LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS 259-263 

III. A LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 263-266 



INTRODUCTION 



THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



THE ORIGIN OF SPEECH. 

Nobody knows whether man was created with a language ready 
for use, or whether he made it when he was impressed with the 
need of it, although most people who think about it at all, think 
the latter. 

CAUSES OF DIVERSITY IN LANGUAGE. 

But the history of man and the history of language, as far as 
is known, tend to prove that all the men and women of the world 
at one time spoke the same language. As men multiplied on the 
face of the earth, as families grew into tribes and tribes into nations, 
different families, tribes, and nations had to separate from each 
other in order to find means of subsistence. This separation was 
the direct cause of difference in speech. New circumstances, new 
conditions of life, and new occupations necessitated certain additions 
to the language of one tribe, and made certain changes in it ; while 
different circumstances and occupations affected differently the lan- 
guage of another tribe. Thus, after long periods of time, nations 
that originally spoke the same language came to have languages 
entirely different, 

HOW THE RELATIONSHIP OF LANGUAGES IS 
ESTABLISHED. 

By the similarity found in certain words and constructions, lan- 
guages that seem to be very different from each other are often 
proved to have sprung from the same parent speech. The word 
father aptly illustrates this : 

1 



2 INTRODUCTION. 

English, father. Latin, pater. 

Anglo-Saxon, faeder. Greek, nariip (patair'). 

German, voter. Persian, pidlr. 

French, pere. Sanskrit, pidri. 

This is only one of the many words that show the common 
parentage of these languages. 

THE ARYAN LANGUAGE. 

It is supposed (not known) that this parent speech was spoken 
in Persia. Persia, in Sanskrit, which is the oldest of these related 
languages, and is supposed for that reason to be most like the 
mother language, was called Arya ; hence, the parent language is 
called the Aryan language, and tradition names Japhet, the son of 
Noah, as the founder of the Aryan race. All the languages which 
are believed to have sprung from this Aryan stock, are called the 
Aryan family of languages. The name Indo-European is some- 
times given to this family, because the nations that speak these 
languages are scattered all the way from India to the western coasts 
of Europe. 

THE SEMITIC LANGUAGES. 

There is another family of languages called the Semitic family 
(from Shem the son of Noah), to which the Hebrew, the Arabic, 
and other languages belong ; but as our language does not belong to 
this family, nothing more need be said of it. 

THE BRANCHES OP THE ARYAN FAMILY. 

The Aryan family is composed of seven members, each one of 
which constitutes a smaller family. The English language belongs 
to that branch of the Aryan family which is called the Teutonic, 
or Germanic branch. 

THE HOME OF THE TEUTONS. 

The Teutons dwelt in the northern part of Europe along the 
coasts of the Baltic Sea, having gone there, according to their own 
traditions, from the country just north of Persia along the river 
Don. 



INTRODUCTION. 3 

THE ANGLES. 

These Teutons were divided into a great many tribes or small 
nations, one of which called themselves Angles. 

About four hundred years after the time of Christ, which their 
traditions say was about five hundred years after they first went to 
this northern country, some of these tribes, either because they 
quarrelled among themselves, or because they had grown so numer- 
ous that there was not food enough for them at home, started out 
to find homes in other countries. Some of them went south and 
settled in France and Italy, conquering the nations they found 
there ; while others, among them the Angles and the Saxons, 
sailed across the North Sea, and took possession of the island of 
Britain. 

THE CELTS. 

They did not take possession, however, without a struggle. The 
people whom they found in Britain were Celts, and the language 
they spoke belonged also to the Aryan family. For more than two 
centuries they resisted bravely the inroads of their enemies, but 
were forced to yield one city or province after another, until finally 
they were completely conquered. Some were driven across the sea, 
some took refuge in Wales, where they dwell to this day and still 
speak the Celtic language ; others dwelt as slaves among their con- 
querors, or were driven across the sea to France. 

ANGLE-LAND. 

That part of Britain in. which the Angles settled they called 
Angle-land, which afterwards changed to England, and finally 
became the name of the entire island. Thus this tribe of Angles 
from the coast of the Baltic Sea gave their name to a land which 
has since become the home of one of the greatest nations on the 
face of the earth. We call them by the double name Anglo-Saxons, 
Saxon being the name of another prominent tribe, but they 
always called themselves Englisc folk. 

THE INTRODUCTION OF CHRISTIANITY. 

In 597 A. D. missionaries from Rome were sent to England, and 
soon after the people began to discard the heathen religion they 



4 INTRODUCTION. 

had brought with them from their northern home and to adopt 
the Christian religion. This had a marked influence on their 
language. The worship of the Church was conducted in Latin, all 
the literature of the Church was in Latin, and the monks and 
priests in the monasteries spent much of their time in making Latin 
books. Many of the people became monks and priests, and there- 
fore had to learn Latin ; some of the people learned to speak and 
write Latin without becoming monks ; all the instruction given to 
the young was in Latin ; and at one time it seemed as if the Latin 
language were going to drive out the Anglo-Saxon, or English, 
speech altogether. But the great mass of the common people still 
clung to their mother-tongue, and used it in all their conversation 
with each other about their farming, their housework, their trades, 
and their domestic pleasures, and eventually some of the Latin 
books were translated into Anglo-Saxon in order that the common 
people might better understand the truths they contained. So, 
throughout all the Latin influence introduced by Christianity, the 
Anglo-Saxon language continued to live and be the common speech 
of the common people, although there were introduced into it from 
the Latin many words and expressions. 

THE DANES. 

Scarcely had these Teutonic tribes conquered the Celts and come 
to some kind of agreement among themselves in regard to the gov- 
ernment of their hard-earned land, when their kinsmen, the Danes, 
whom they had left about three hundred years before in Denmark 
and Norway, and whose language by this separation had become 
entirely different, passed over to Britain, and tried to drive out the 
Anglo-Saxons. They did not succeed in this, although they did 
succeed in securing homes among the Anglo-Saxons ; and the union 
of the two nations, the mingling of their languages and their cus- 
toms, had a marked influence on the Anglo-Saxon language, but 
did not change its real nature. It still remained Anglo-Saxon. 

THE NORMAN CONQUEST. 

But the greatest change in this language was brought about in 
the two centuries of their history which immediately follow 1066 
A. D. ; for it was at that date that the Normans, who lived in 



INTRODUCTION. 5 

France, and who spoke a corrupt form of Latin mixed with 
Teutonic and Celtic, crossed over to England, conquered the Anglo- 
Saxon nation, and set their own kings upon the English throne. 
But, although the English lost their throne, they kept their lan- 
guage. The additions which it received, however, from the Norman- 
French language were so many, and the changes it underwent were 
so great, that it became very different from what it had been, and 
henceforth we apply the name English to the language as well as 
to the people who spoke it. 

As time passed, as civilization advanced and knowledge increased, 
as the English nation extended its commerce to all parts of the 
world, as its people engaged in new enterprises, made discoveries 
and inventions, its language grew to be more and more like the 
English we now talk and write. 

THE CONSTITUENTS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

A study of the vocabulary and the construction of our language 
as it exists to-day reveals the fact that there is scarcely a language 
that has been or is spoken on the face of the earth which has not 
in some way added to its wealth. 

Even the Celtic race, whose men were mercilessly slaughtered, 
and whose women were placed under the most abject slavery, have 
given to us a few words. Some of these are the names of the most 
common objects ; as, baslcet, cabin, darn, flannel, hog, griddle, etc. 

From the Danes we received more words than from the 
Celts, as might be inferred from the manner in which they settled 
among our Anglo-Saxon forefathers. The character and meaning 
of these words would reveal to us the seafaring life of the Danes, 
even if we did not know them as the pirates of the northern seas. 

The syllable by, meaning town, and found in the names of certain 
English towns, such as Whitby, Derby, etc., is of Danish origin. 
By-law, 1 meaning originally town-law, contains the same sj'llable. 
The words window, cake, clumsy, keg, fellow, etc. are additional 
examples of words from the Danish. 

From the Latin we have received so many ecclesiastical, 
scientific, law, and other terms that we can hardly make an English 

1 Webster's Dictionary explains by in this compound as the English 
preposition by, but this is an error. 



6 INTRODUCTION. 

sentence without using one or more of them. For instance, in the 
preceding sentence the words Latin, received, scientific, terms, sen- 
tence, and using are all of Latin origin. 

From the French we have received almost as many as from 
the Latin. 

From the Greek we have received mainly scientific terms 
like physiology, anatomy, geography, etc. 

From the Hebrew, sabbath, manna, cherub, seraph, amen, etc. 

From the Arabic, scientific, mathematical, and other terms; 
as, algebra, alchemy, almanac, tariff, lemon, sofa, chemistry, etc. 

From the Persian, orange, lilac, turban, sash, shawl, etc. 

From the Hindu, calico, chintz, muslin, etc. 

From the Italian, balcony, cameo, guitar, moustache, bandit, 
etc. 

From the Spanish, alligator, cigar, negro, etc. 

From the Chinese, nankeen, tea, hyson, caddy, etc. 

From the American Indian, potato, tomato, calumet, 
hominy, hammock, icigwam, squaw, etc. 

Our language and the German are so closely related that they 
have many words in common, and it is difficult to determine which 
has the first claim to certain of them. 

ENGLISH SPELLING. 

The greatest hindrance to the study of the English language, and 
to the acquisition of knowledge by means of it, lies in its spelling. 
English is perhaps the most un phonetically spelled language known. 
A certain character or combination of characters has one sound in 
one word, and in each of several other words a different one or none 
at all. No rules for English spelling can be given that do not have 
so many exceptions as to make them practically useless. 

The only remedy for this unfortunate condition is to reform our 
alphabet so that there shall be a different character for each sound 
in the language, and then spell the words phonetically ; that is, as 
they are pronounced. 

PRONUNCIATION. 
The unphonetic spelling of English is a hindrance also to pro- 
nunciation, but the following rules for pronunciation, while not 
without exceptions, are helpful: — 



INTRODUCTION. 7 

RULES FOR PRONUNCIATION. 

1. Familiarize yourself with the key to pronunciation in the 
dictionary you use, so that when a word is examined, the sound 
of every letter may be known from the diacritical marks used in 
connection with it; as, avatanghd. 

2. When a constitutes or ends an unaccented syllable, it has the 
short Italian sound like a in comma ; as, last, umbrella. 

3. When e, o, or u constitutes or ends a syllable, it usually has 
the long sound slightly abridged ; as, evil, pony, unite. 

4. When i constitutes or ends an unaccented syllable, it is usually 
short ; as, divide. 

5. In Webster's Dictionary an unmarked vowel not constituting 
or ending a syllable is obscure ; as, rd'zor. But when two vowels 
are together in the same syllable, the unmarked one is silent; as, 
read. 

6. E before final n is always silent in participles, and usually so 
in other words ; as, given, oaJcen. 

In chicken, linen, woolen, kitchen, women, and a few others e is sounded. 

7. In most words of French origin ou has the sound of oo in 
moon, but in words of Anglo-Saxon origin ou has the sound of ow 
in cow; as, bouquet (from French), sound (from Anglo-Saxon). 

8. Cand g are soft before e, i, or y, and hard in other situations ; 
as, gynic, genial, going. 

c has the sound of z in sacrifice (sakrifize), suffice, discern, and sice. 

9. The termination tion is always pronounced shun, except after 
s or x; as, examination, but question (kwest-yun). 

10. When an accented syllable beginning with a vowel or with h, 
follows x, x has the sound of gz; as, example (egzample), exhibit 
(egshibit). 

Hin an accented syllable is never silent; as, exhaust (egzhaust). 

11. A regular verb ending in the sound of t or d has an additional 
syllable in the past tense and past participle; as, hate, hated; mend, 
mended; but work {not ending in sound of t or d), worked (workt). 

12. In inflectional terminations (those that indicate number, per- 
son, possession, tense, etc. ) 5 following a vowel sound takes the sound 
of z; as, trees (trez). 

13. In inflectional terminations, when two consonants stand 



8 



INTRODUCTION. 



together, the second assimilates in sound with the first ; that is, if 
the first is subvocal like b in tub, the second will be the same, as in 
tubs (tubz) ; but if the first is aspirate like t in Jieart, the second will 
be the same, as in hearts. Ex. smooth, smooths (smoothz) ; peep, 
peeped (peept). 

EXERCISES. 

Pronounce the following words according to the foregoing rules, 
and give separately the sound of each letter or combination : — 



ab-do'nien 


dl-rect' 


or'gies 


al-lies / 


dough 'ty 


pi-az'za 


a-mour' 


e-lSv'en 


pro-duced' 


ba-na'na 


e-qua/tion 


pro-nun'ci-a/tion (-shi-a/shun) 


bra/vo 


ex-cur 'sion 


seVen 


ca-nine' 


ex-haust / ion 


swollen 


c5m 'bat-ant 


ex-ist'ed 


wassails 


con / cord 


ex-5t / ic 




cu'po-la 


mount/ain 





Write each of the 
{using a dictionary), 

again 

alas 

about 

croup 

circumstance 

discern 

duty 

duets 

exhilarate 

education 

exalt 

exaggeration 

exhale 

eleven 

equation 



following words with proper diacritical marks 
and then pronounce : — 

individual 



finance 

graduate 

gentleman 

genuine 

ground 

gape 

gangrene 

grimaces 

humane 

hewed 

heaven 

horses 

Henry's 

interested 

innocent 



isothermal 

juvenile 

leaven 

logs 

looked 

leisure 

memento 

mosquitoes 

morose 

news 

notoriety 

nobility 

pianos 

precisely 



poems 

phantoms 

palatable 

reader 

routine 

roofed 

rooted 

scowl 

solace 

superior 

sacrifice 

suggestion 

uniform 



PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



LESSON 1 



Look at some object — a book, a box, or a desk; then 
shut your eyes, and tell your teacher where you saw it, 
how large it is, what its shape is, and of what color it is. 

Why do you know so much about the object, when you 
do not see it ? 

Because you have a picture of it in your mind. 

Every object we look at, every sound we hear, every 
odor we smell, everything we taste, and everything we 
touch, makes an impression — a kind of picture — in our 
minds, somewhat similar to the impression made on the 
sensitive glass plate which the photographer uses when he 
takes pictures. 

The right name for a mental picture is an idea. 

When we have a certain idea or mental picture, and 
want to let some one else know it, we represent the idea 
by some sign which that person understands. 

There are three kinds of signs. 

If you taste something very bitter, you can tell me that 
it is bitter (1) by making a wry face, (2) by saying the word 
" bitter," (3) by writing the word "bitter." The first 
way is called expressing ideas by natural signs and 
gestures. The other two ways are called expressing ideas 
by words. 



10 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

You will see that there are two kinds of words, written 
words and spoken words. Which kind do you think we 
use most in expressing our ideas to each other? 

Spoken and written words arranged in sentences consti- 
tute what is called language (Latin, lingua — a tongue). 

The English language is the language spoken and 
written by most of the people of England and the United 
States. 

Grammar is the systematic study of a language. 

English grammar is, therefore, the systematic study of 
the English language. 

Suppose we have the idea expressed by the word box, 
the idea expressed by the word desk, the idea of the 
relative position of the box and desk expressed by the 
word on, or in, or under, and the condition expressed by 
the word sits. If we put all these ideas together in the 
right order, we can make them state something ; thus, 
The box sits on the desk. But if we put them together 
thus : The desk the box on sits, they will not state any- 
thing, because they are not in the right order. 

Ideas put together in the right order form a thought, and 
a thought expressed in words is called a sentence. 

Which of these groups of words form sentences ? 

1. The red fence a is squirrel on. 

2. The rose is a beautiful flower. 

3. Some birds sing sweetly. 

4. Leaves tree green the has. 

5. A red squirrel is on the fence. 

6. Like boys and candy girls. 

7. In not trust your put money. 

Make sentences by arranging the following groups of 
words in their right order: — 



THE SENTENCE. 11 

1. Best places in shady ferns grow. 

2. Little loved children Longfellow. 

3. A leg fly two six has and wings. 

4. Years Victoria of England more Queen than reigned has fifty. 

5. No mittens in cat can a mice catch. 

6. Time of procrastination thief the is. 

7. Good horse blind wink a a a as as to is nod. 

Write five short sentences about your school-room and 
the objects in it. 

Write five short sentences about what you have studied 
in this lesson. 

REVIEW. 
Find answers in this lesson to the following questions : — 

1. What is an idea? 

2. In What five ways do we acquire ideas ? 

3. Mention the three ways by which we may communicate our ideas 
to others. 

4. What is a word ? ( Ans. A word is the sign of an idea.) 

5. How many kinds of words are there? Name them. 

6. What is language? 

7. What is the English language? 

8. What is grammar? 

9. What is English grammar? 

10. What is a thought? 

11. What is a sentence ? 



LESSON 2. 



When we study plants, and animals, and other objects 
in nature, we put all that have like qualities in the same 
class ; and then, by studying the class, we learn all about 
the objects that belong to that class. 

From certain resemblances in form and structure, we 
put certain trees in the same class, and call them oaks; 



12 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

certain animals in the same class, and call them deer; 
certain birds in the same class, and call them owls, — 
although we know that there are different kinds of oaks, 
deer, and owls. 

We do this for convenience of study. If we did not 
do it, we would have to study these objects one at a time, 
and it would take us many years to acquire as much 
knowledge as we can acquire in a few weeks by studying 
the classes to which the objects belong. 

The same is true of sentences. Those similar in mean- 
ing we put in the same class for convenience of study. 

Here are four sentences: — 

1. Boys play ball. 3. Bring me the ball. 

2. Do girls play ball ? I 4. How large the ball is ! 

If you study their meaning, you see that the first 
sentence expresses a declaration. It is therefore called a 
declarative sentence. 

The second expresses an interrogation, or question, and 
is called an interrogative sentence. 

The third expresses a command, and is called a com- 
manding, or imperative sentence. 

The fourth expresses an exclamation, and is called an 
exclamatory sentence. 

In these four classes, all the sentences that have ever 
been made or can be made, may be put. 

Study the meanings of the following sentences, and 
name each hind: — 

1. Have you ever visited Fairmount Park in Philadelphia? 

2. Many of the people of Ireland want to be free from Great 
Britain. 

3. You can see a chimpanzee at the Zoological Garden. 

4. Never taste intoxicating drinks. 



KINDS OF SENTENCES. 13 

5. How I should enjoy a trip to California ! 

6. Always be kind to old people. 

7. When and where did General Grant die ? 

8. Do boys like the sports of winter best ? 

9. Henry Bergh will be remembered as the friend of dumb 
animals. 

10. What kindness Mother Nature shows to all her children ! 

Make five interrogative sentences about General G-rant. 

Make five imperative sentences about a book. 

Make five declarative sentences about the county in 
which you live. 

Make an exclamatory sentence about a rainbow ; an- 
other about a sunset; another about Niagara Falls. 

Although the words declarative, interrogative, imperative, 
and exclamatory are good names for these four kinds of 
sentences, they are not good definitions for them. To say 
that " a declarative sentence is one that expresses a decla- 
ration " would not be a good definition, because the defini- 
tion would contain the term to be defined. 

Learn the following definitions :- — 

A declarative sentence is one that affirms or 
denies. 

An interrogative sentence is one that expresses 
a question. 

An imperative sentence is one that expresses a 
command or earnest request. 

An exclamatory sentence is one that expresses 
sudden feeling* or strong emotion. 

Punctuation of Sentences. 

It is just as important to place proper marks of punctu- 
ation after the sentences we make, as it is to dot our i's 
and cross our fs when we write. 



14 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

Rules. 

1. A period ( . ) should follow every declarative and every 
imperative sentence. 

2. A question mark (?) should follow every interroga- 
tive sentence. 

3. An exclamation mark ( ! ) should follow every exclam- 
atory sentence. 

4. Every sentence should begin with a capital letter. 
Punctuate the sentences you have made, and see that the 

first word of each begins with a capital letter. 

REVIEW. 

1. What is meant by classification? 

2. Of what use is classification in studying natural objects? In 
studying sentences? 

3. How many kinds of sentences are mentioned in this lesson? 
Name them. 

4. Is this classification made according to meaning, or according to 
form ? 

5. Define each kind. 

6. How should each kind be punctuated? 

7. What caution should be observed in making definitions? 



LESSON 3. 

Every sentence has two essential parts. One part names 
some object spoken or thought of, and the other part ex- 
presses something said or thought of the thing named. 

Hens cackle. 

What word in this sentence names the thing thought off 

What word expresses something about the thing named ? 

Definition. — The subject of a sentence is the 
word or words which name the thing thought or 
spoken of. 



SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 15 

Definition. — The predicate of a sentence is the 
word or words which express what is thought or 
said of the subject. 

The subject may contain several words; so may the 

predicate. 

Subject. Predicate. 



Ex. — I Noisy pupils | | cannot study well. | 
Copy these sentences, and draw a short vertical line 
between the subjects and predicates. 

Model. — Hens | cackle. 

1 . Diligent pupils learn fast. 

2. John goes to school. 

3. The buffaloes of the prairies are almost extinct. 

4. The wild monkeys of South America climb with great agility. 

5. A black squirrel on an oak tree conversed pleasantly with 
a gray squirrel on a chestnut tree. 

Write all the words that belong to the subjects of the 

folloiving sentences by themselves, and all that belong to 

the predicates by themselves. 

Model. — Where does the Bartholdi Statue stand ? 
the Bartholdi Statue | does stand where? 

1. A brave man was John Maynard. 

2. In this exercise are eight sentences. 

3. How very loud the ocean billows roar ! 

4. In 1066, William of Normandy conquered England. 

5. A dainty plant is the ivy green. 

6. How far is it from New York to Philadelphia? 

7. The children of poor people often suffer from want of proper care. 

8. Across the Niagara River the suspension bridge extends. 

Write predicates for these subjects : — 

1. Benjamin Franklin . 6. The American flag — . 

2. Joseph's coat . 7. The pig . 

3. How many boys ? 8. Cleopatra's needle . 

4. This book . 9. Alaska . 

5. The child Moses . 10. David's sling — . 



16 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

Write subjects for these predicates : — 

1 . gather their grain in July. 

2. has eight corners. 

3. is a cunning animal. 

4. lived at Mount Vernon, in Virginia. 

5. called his horse Bucephalus. 

6. can be trusted. 

7. has been examined. 

8. is governor of this state. 

9. turn into butterflies. 

REVIEW. 

1. How many parts must every sentence have? 

2. Name them. 

3. Define them. 



LESSON 4. 

In Lesson 2, we learned that it is advantageous to study 
sentences by arranging them in classes, instead of studying 
them one at a time. 

The same is true of the words that we put together to 
form sentences. There are more than two hundred and 
fifty thousand words in the English language ; and, if we 
had to learn all about their forms and uses one at a time, 
we could never hope to know much about them. But all 
these words may be conveniently arranged according to 
their uses into eight classes called parts of speech. 

Some words are names of persons, places, or things ; 
as, James, man, Boston, town, chair. These are called 
nouns (Lat. nomen = Si name). 

Definition. — A noun is the name of anything. 
Look at some of the nouns mentioned above : man, 
James, Boston, town. 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 17 

The name man is common to all men, but the name 
James belongs to a particular person ; the name town is 
common to all towns, but the name Boston belongs to 
a particular town. 

If we had time to study all the nouns in the English 
language, we would find the same thing true ; one class of 
nouns is made up of those belonging in common to all 
things of a kind ; while another names the particular 
individuals of the different classes. Therefore we see that 
nouns are of two kinds, and we call them, Common nouns 
and Proper nouns. 

Definition. — A common noun is a name given in 
common to everything 1 of the same class; as, boy, 
dog, city. 

Definition. — A proper noun is the name of a par- 
ticular person, place, or thing; as, Charles, Carlo, 
Boston. 

Capital Letter Rule. — Proper nouns and words 
derived from them should begin with capital letters; as, 
Boston, Bostonian, Jew, Jewish, .Europe, European. 



Some words are used instead of nouns to avoid unpleas- 
ant repetition, or to designate a thing the name of which 
is unknown ; as, John lost his hat, instead of John lost 
John's hat, or Who came to see John f when the visitor's 
name is unknown. 

Such words are called pronouns (Lat. pro = for -j- nomen). 

The word for which a pronoun stands, is called its 
antecedent. 

Definition. — A pronoun is a word used instead of 
a noun. 



18 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

Capital Letter Rule. — The pronoun / should 
always be a capital letter. 



Some words state what actions things perform ; as, Birds 
fly. Here fly asserts action. Other words state that things 
have existence or being ; as, There are fish in the pond. 
Here, are asserts being. Other words express in what con- 
dition or state of being things are ; as, The boy sleeps. 
Here sleeps asserts condition. These three kinds of words 
we put into one class, and call them verbs (Lat. verbum = 
the word). 

Definition. — A verb is a word that asserts action, 
being-, or condition. 

Sometimes a verb consists of several words ; as, John 
might have been struck. 

Point out the nouns and verbs in the folloiving sen- 
tences, and give your reasons ; also, point out the pronouns 
and their antecedents : — 

Model. — 1. The boy fell from his chair. Boy is a noun, because it 
is the name of a person ; fell is a verb, because it asserts action ; his is 
a pronoun, because it stands for the noun boy's; chair is a noun, because 
it is the name of a thing. 

2. The book lies on the table. 

3. The old oaken bucket hangs in the well. 

4. The dog stole my hat. 

5. Who took my hat from the hook? 

6. In the month of May, good pasture makes good milk and 
butter. 

7. The river has changed its course. 

Copy the foregoing sentences, and draw a short vertical 
line between the subject and predicate of each. 
Model. — The boy | fell from his chair. 
What part of speech is the principal word of the subject? 
What part of speech is the principal word of the predicate? 



MODIFIERS. 19 

Write twenty verbs that assert action, five that assert 
condition, and two that assert being. 

REVIEW. 
1. What is classification ? 2. Why is classification useful in studying 
words ? 3. How many words has our language ? 4. What is meant by 
parts of speech? 5. What three parts of speech are defined in this 
lesson? 6. Define each. 7. What is an antecedent? 8. What two 
parts of speech are used in subjects? 9. What part of speech is used 
in predicates? 



LESSON 5. 

If a man decide to build a house that shall contain 
seven rooms, and afterward decide to make his house larger 
or smaller or to make the number of rooms in it greater 
or less, we may say he changes or modifies his plan. 

Words are sometimes modified. Other words, which 
either add to their meaning or narrow it, are joined with 
them. Thus, if we say, Birds fly, the two words birds 
and fly are unchanged in their meaning ; that is, they have 
all the fullness of meaning they can have when used alone ; 
but if we join the word large to birds, and slowly to fly, 
and say, Large birds fly slowly, we change the meaning 
of each. Large modifies birds, and sloivly modifies fly. 

Definition. — A modifier is a word or group of 
words joined to some part of a sentence to change 
its meaning-. 

Copy the following sentences, giving each subject and 
each predicate an appropriate modifier. In the first seven, 
let words modify the subjects, and phrases the predicates. 
In the remainder, the opposite : — 

1. Elms grew. 3. Letter was written. 

2. Men slept. 4. Baby cried. 



20 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

5. Horse ran. 10. Child wandered. 

6. Cows graze. 11. Crows croaked. 

7. Dog trotted. 12. Crocodile lives. 

8. Pupils study. 13. Hare leaped. 

9. Beggar sat. 14. Book fell. 

Arrange the following expressions, so that each subject 
and predicate shall have its appropriate modifiers : — 

1. Clock stands, the, in the corner, old-fashioned, large. 

2. Bucket hangs, old, the, in the well, oaken. 

3. Peas are, how, in a pod, many? 

4. Money should be spent hard, not, earned, carelessly. 

5. Web was spun of a huge, black spider, the, across my path. 

6. Chickens were killed, fattest, in the hen-house, four, by a sly 
mink, the. 

The noun or pronoun that is the principal word of a 
subject is called the simple subject. 

The simple subject with all its modifiers is called the 
modified subject. 

The verb that is the principal part of a predicate is 
called the simple predicate. 

The simple predicate with all its modifiers is called the 
modified predicate. 

Point out the simple subjects and simple predicates in 
the following sentences, and also the modifiers of each. 
Mention which modifiers are words and which are groups 
of words: — 

Model. — 1. Little Moses lay very quietly among the bulrushes. 
Moses is the simple subject. Lay is the simple predicate. Little (a 
word) modifies Moses. Quietly (a word) and among the bulrushes (a 
group of words) modify lay. Very modifies quietly. 

2. The grayhound runs very rapidly. 

3. The saucy parrot chatters almost constantly. 

4. The hungry boy waited patiently for his dinner. 

5. How pleasantly the rippling waters sound ! 



PHRASES. 21 

6. The bay horse with a white face grazes in the meadow behind 
the barn. 

7. Where do the pretty daisies grow? 

8. Without knowledge no sure progress can be made. 

9. The horrible Gunpowder Plot was fortunately discovered. 

10. The East River bridge was finally completed. 

1 1 . Some mute inglorious Milton here may rest. 

12. The precious morning hours should not be wasted. 

Pointing out the subject, predicate, and all the 
modifiers in a sentence is called analysis. 

REVIEW. 
1. What other word means the same as modify? 2. Mention differ- 
ent things that may be modified. 3. How is a word affected when it is 
modified? 4. What is a modifier? 5. What is a simple subject? a 
simple predicate? 6. What is a modified subject? a modified predi- 
cate? 7. What is analysis? 



LESSON 6. 

In the last lesson, we learned that a modifier may be 
either one word or a group of words, but every group of 
words is not a modifier. This group of words, in over large, 
could not be used as a modifier, because the ideas expressed 
by the words are not related to each other. This group of 
words, Some trees bear fruit, could not be used as a modi- 
fier, because they express an entire thought ; that is, form 
a complete sentence. These groups of words, in the 
meadow, carrying a pitcher, may be used as modifiers, 
because they express related ideas, but do not express 
complete thoughts. 

The right name for such a group of words is a phrase. 

Definition. — A phrase is a group of words expres- 
sing related ideas, but not a complete thought. 



22 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

Very many phrases (not all) have for their first or intro- 
ducing words one of these little words, in, to, at, on, over, 
etc. These words express simply relation or position, and 
serve to join the meaning of the phrase to the word modi- 
fied by the phrase; as, The horse grazes in the meadow. 
Here in introduces the phrase, and joins the meaning of 
the phrase to the word grazes, which the phrase modifies. 

These little words are sometimes called relation words, 
but they are usually called prepositions (Lat. pyce = before, 
-f- positus — placed), because they are placed before the 
principal words of phrases. 

Definition. — A preposition is a word used to intro- 
duce a phrase and join the meaning of the phrase to 
the word modified. 1 

This is the fourth part of speech. Name the other three. 

See how many prepositional phrases there are in the last 
eleven sentences of Lesson 5. 

There are twelve prepositional phrases in the beginning 
of this lesson before the definition of a phrase. Find 
them, state what word each, except the ninth and tenth, 
modifies, and point out each preposition. 

The natural position for a phrase is after the word it 
modifies, but it can be made more emphatic sometimes by 
being placed in some other position. A phrase out of its 
natural position generally causes one or more interruptions 
in the thought, which should be indicated by the comma (,). 

Comma Rule. — A phrase out of its natural order 
should be set off by the comma, unless the break in the 
thought is very slight. 

1 All phrases are not used as modifiers. Other uses will be noticed in 
Lessons 20-28. 



PUNCTUATION OF PHRASES. 23 

Ex. 1. — He goes to school in the morning. 
Here no comma is needed, because the phrase is in its natural order. 

2. — In the morning, he goes to school. 
Here the break in the thought after morning should be marked by 
the comma. 

3. — Between the rocks flows a little stream. 
Here the subject follows the verb, and occupies the position naturally 
belonging to the phrase, while the phrase occupies the position nat- 
urally belonging to the subject; hence, the break is slight, and no 
comma is needed. 

Copy the follotving sentences, and insert commas where 
they are needed, giving your reasons : — * 

1. In the beginning Grod created the heavens and the earth. 

2. The man having grown weary rested in the shade. 

3. Will you call for me at ten o'clock? 

4. Notwithstanding the rain we started on our journey. 

5. Behind the wall stood a line of soldiers, 

6. Behind the wall a line of soldiers stood. 

7. In a prepositional phrase the principal word is a noun or 
pronoun. 

8. Out of the depths have I cried. 

9. During the day he wrote many letters. 
10. As to this man I have nothing to say. 

Point out the prepositions in the foregoing sentences. 

Compose six sentences about a tame squirrel, each con- 
tabling a prepositional phrase. In three let the phrase 
be placed so as to require the comma; in three, so as to 
require no comma. 

REVIEW. 

1. What is a modifier? 2. What groups of words are not modifiers ? 
3. What is a phrase ? 4. What is a preposition ? 5. What is the 
natural position for a phrase ? 6. Why are they sometimes placed out 
of their natural positions? 7. When should they be set off by the 
comma? 



1 To the Teacher. — Have pupils punctuate as they write, not after 
they have written. 



24 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

LESSON 7. 

What name was given in the last lesson to modifiers 
consisting of groups of words? 

In this lesson will be found names for those that consist 
of only one word. They are of two kinds. 

Definition. — An adjective is a word that modifies 
a noun or pronoun. 

Ex. — A book, the book, good book, one book, The book is large. A, 
the, good, one, and large give their meaning to the noun book ; that is, 
they modify book, and are called adjectives (Lat. adjectivus = added to). 

Definition. — An adverb is a word that modifies a 
verb, an adjective, or another adverb. 1 

Ex. — Walks rapidly, talks quite fluently, very good book, jus/ across the 
river. 

Rapidly modifies the verb ivalks, quite modifies the adverb fluently, 
very modifies the adjective good, and just modifies the preposition across, 
which introduces an adverb modifier. 

The words rapidly, quite, very, and just are called adverbs (Lat. ad ■= 
to, -j- verbum = a verb, or a word). 

Find the adjectives and adverbs in each of the following 
sentences, by applying the definitions : — 

Model. — 1. That man is very feeble. 
That is an adjective, because it modifies the noun man. 
Very is an adverb, because it modifies the adjective feeble. 
Feeble is an adjective, because it modifies the noun man. 

1 Besides modifying a "verb, adjective, or other adverb," an adverb 
may modify a preposition, a conjunction, a phrase, or a clause. 

Jack jumped clear over the candlestick, I was there just in time, He fell 
just where he stood. Some contend that adverbs modify even nouns and 
pronouns ; as, Bless me, even me. This, however, is not consistent with 
the accepted definition of an adjective. If a word gives its meaning to 
a noun or pronoun, it is an adjective, no matter what its ordinary use 
may be. 

The parts of speech are not separated by fixed boundaries ; the same 
word may be put into one or another class, according to difference of use 
or change of meaning. 



ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. 25 

2. Wisdom is the principal thing. 

3. The weary plowman homeward plods. 

4. That poor old man is entirely blind. 

5. The express-train will soon be here. 

6. The twinkling stars are very beautiful. 

7. A little learning is a dangerous thing. 

8. We stopped just at the foot of the mountain. 

9. The selfish dog in the manger kept away the hungry cow. 

10. How many cents is that orange worth ? 

11. The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea. 

12. He knocked the ball clear over the fence. 

Rewrite the following sentences, changing the italicized 

adjectives and adverbs to phrases, without changing the 

meaning : — 

Model. — 1. A stone wall was built there. 

A wall of stone was built at that place. 

2. Where did you find that copper coin ? 

3. The liquor laws are violated everywhere. 

4. Gentlemanly conduct always wins friends. 

5. Old copper coins are much sought for. 

6. English people are greatly bored by American egotism. 

7. A beautiful thing is a joy forever. 

Name the parts of speech in this sentence : — 
That boy lost his hat in a very deep well. 

Name and define- the first six parts of speech. 
Write a sentence that shall contain each of the first six 
parts of speech. 

LESSON 8. 

John rides, Henry walks. These two sentences may be 
united thus : John rides, and Henry ivalks ; or thus : John 
rides, but Henry ivalks. And and but are the joining 
words. 



26 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

John rides, John walks. These two sentences have the 
same subject. They may be united thus : John rides and 
walks. Here and joins the two predicates. 

John rides, Henry rides. These have the same predi- 
cate, and may be united thus : John and Henry ride. 
Here and joins the two subjects. 

John rides in a carriage, John rides in the cars. These 
may be united thus : John rides in a carriage and in the 
cars. Here and connects the two phrases. 

And, but, or, and all words used to connect words or 
groups of words are called conjunctions (Lat. con = to- 
gether, -\-jungo = to join). This is the seventh part of 
speech. 

Definition. — A conjunction is a word used to con- 
nect words or groups of words. 

Two or more sentences united by a conjunction into one 
sentence, as in the first example above, form a compound 1 
sentence. 

Two or more united subjects having the same predicate 
(John and Henry ride) form a compound subject. 

Two or more united predicates having the same subject 
(John rides and walks) form a compound predicate. 

Point out what is compound in the following sentences : — 

1. James and Henry hop, and skip, and jump. 

2. The cow grazes in the field and by the roadside. 

3. The flesh of cattle and sheep nourishes us. 

4. Fish and eels are caught in streams and ponds. 

5. Fish are caught with hooks, and nets, and snares. 

6. Men and boys fish and hunt. 

7. Men hunt, and boys fish. 

1 Be careful to pronounce this word correctly. The accent is on the 
first syllable (corn' pound). 



CONJUNCTIONS AND INTERJECTIONS. 27 

Write jive sentences, each having a compound subject, 
five more, each having a compound predicate, and five 
more, each having phrases connected by conjunctions. 

Write three sentences, each of which shall contain both 
a compound subject and a compound predicate. 



Alas ! my pet is dead. Oh, what a sad sight! Hark! I 
hear a noise. Alas, oh, hark, are emotion words. They 
are not subjects, nor predicates, nor modifiers. They have 
no real connection with the sentence, no grammatical office. 
They may be omitted without destroying the sense. Their 
use only serves to show the feelings, or emotions, of the 
writer or speaker. They are called interjections (Lat. 
inter — among, -\-jectus = thrown). 

This is the eighth and last part of speech. Words 
that generally hold an important position in the construc- 
tion of sentences, often become interjections; as, indeed! 
behold! what! 

Definition. — An interjection is a word used to 
express emotion. 

Punctuation Rule. — Interj ections and all exclama- 
tory expressions should be followed by the exclamation 
mark ( ! ) ; as, Oh ! see the beautiful rainbow. 



Remarks. — 1. When an interjection begins an expression that 
requires an exclamation mark at the end, a comma should follow the 
interjection ; as, Oh, how I 






2. Interjections repeated to express Inughter and other sounds, are 
separated by commas, and take the exclamation mark only after the 
last; as, Ha, ha, ha! Whack, ivhack, whack/ Tick, tick, tick! 

3. The exclamation mark may be repeated for emphasis; as, Silenced, 
indeed ! ! We'll see who's silenced. 



28 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

4. No distinction is made in the use of and Oh by some good 
authors, although many wisely prefer to limit to direct address. 

5. should always be a capital letter, and the exclamation mark 
should never be placed immediately after it. 

Give reasons for the use and omission of exclamation 
marks in the following expressions : — 

1. taste and see that the Lord is good ! 

2. Knock, knock, knock! Who's there? 

3. How amiable thou art, virtue ! 

4. O virtue, how amiable thou art ! 

5. Selling off below cost ! ! 

6. Ah ! there's a deathless name. 

7. Oh, how it hurts! 

REVIEW OF PUNCTUATION. 

Place capital letters and marks of punctuation where 
they belong in the following sentences, and give your 
reasons :— 

1. rouse ye romans rouse ye slaves 

2. woe unto thee bethsaida 

3. oh how beautiful is the sky 

4. oh see the beautiful sky 

5. where did you find your ball 

6. i hear in the chamber above me the patter of little feet 

7. charge chester charge on Stanley on 

8. beneath her torn hat glowed the wealth of simple beauty and 
rustic health 

9. beneath her torn hat the wealth of simple beauty and rustic 
health glowed 

REVIEW. 

1. What is a conjunction? 2. What may conjunctions unite? 3. 
What is a compound subject? 4. What is a compound predicate? 
5. How should the word compound be pronounced ? 6. What is an 
interjection? 7. What mark of punctuation generally follows an inter- 
jection ? 8. When is an interjection followed by the comma? (Ke- 
marks 1 and 2.) 9. When may the exclamation mark be repeated? 
10. What distinction should be made between the use of O and 
Oh? 



ANALYSIS. 29 



LESSON 9. 

What is meant by the analysis of a sentence? (See 
Lesson 5.) 

To learn to analyze well is a very useful part of the 
study of grammar. In addition to the mental discipline 
given by it, we learn what relations words in sentences 
bear to each other ; and we may become so familiar with 
the various ways of putting words together to express 
thought that, when we have thoughts of our own to ex- 
press, the most suitable, correct, and forcible way will at 
once recur to our minds. 

The following lessons in analysis, therefore, should be 
thoroughly mastered. 

Diagrams may be used with advantage in the study of 
analysis. 

Definition.— A diagram l is a combination of lines 
to represent to the eye the analysis of a sentence. 

1 There is great difference of opinion in regard to the value of dia- 
grams. They are not a necessary part of analysis, and may be omitted 
by those who prefer to teach without them. 

No good teacher, however, should allow prejudice or ignorance in 
regard to them to keep him from giving them a fair trial. They are 
not " helps," hut tests. They do not " give the lazy pupil something to 
lean upon," but they show whether his analysis is complete and accu- 
rate ; for unless every part of the analysis is accurately thought out 
beforehand, the diagram cannot be correctly made. 

When long and complicated sentences are analyzed orally, the analysis 
of the first part cannot be held before the mind to the end unless a dia- 
gram is used ; nor without the diagram can the class as a whole criticise 
to advantage the views of one member. 

The objection that " a diagram breaks up the order of a sentence " is 
weak. So does oral analysis. The word analysis means take apart, and 
sentences are analyzed to study their parts, not to make them read 
smoothly as a whole. 



30 



PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



Analyze the following sentences by means of the dia- 
gram : — 

Model. — 1. Ducks swim. This is a sentence because it is a thought 
expressed in words. It is declarative, because it affirms. Ducks is the 
subject, because it names the thing thought of or spoken of; swim is the 
predicate, because it expresses what is thought of the subject. 

Explanation. — The subject is written on a hori- 
zontal line, at whose right-hand extremity a short 
Ducks I vertical line cutting the horizontal line is drawn. 

5wim At the lower extremity of the vertical line another 
horizontal line is drawn to the right, on which the 
predicate is written. 



2. Cows graze. 

3. Horses run. 

4. Birds fly. 



5. Fish swim. 

6. Knives cut. 

7. Trees grow. 



The 



8. The ducks swim slowly. 
Model. — (Just as in the foregoing model with the addition of the 
following) : The is a modifier of ducks, because it is joined to the word 
ducks to change its meaning ; it is an adjective, because it modifies a 
noun. Slowly is a modifier of swim, because, etc. ; it is an adverb, 
because it modifies a verb. 

Modifiers are written on horizontal 
ducks lines drawn to the right from the 

gw j m lower extremities of vertical dotted 

— i lines. The upper extremities of the 

' slowly dotted lines meet the lines on which 

are the words modified. 

9. The cows graze very quietly. 

10. Very many cows graze there. 

11. These horses do not run very rapidly. 

1 2. Move very quietly. 

The subjects of most imperative sentences are understood ; that is, 
implied but not expressed, and are represented in the diagram by the 
letter x: 



Move 



quietly 



very 



ANALYSTS. 31 

13. Five very large birds flew by. 

14. Thou shalt not kill. 

15. How many books are here ? 

1 6. How many books are in the drawer of this table ? 



books 



many 



are 



How i in , drawer 



; ; 


the 


i of 


■ table 




1 ; 
i this 



In the diagram of a 
phrase, the preposition 
is written on the same 
line with its principal 
word, from which it is 
separated by a short 
vertical line which cuts 
the base line. 

17. Between two large rocks flowed a tiny stream. 

1 8. For the sake of emphasis, a phrase may be out of its natural 

order. 

Out of is a preposition. 

1 9. We stopped just at the foot of the mountain. 
stopped 

! at ■ foot The adverb just modifies the preposition at. 

! JUSt 

20. Notwithstanding the rain, we started on our journey. 

Notwithstanding is a preposition. 

21. As to the intentions of the man, nothing can be said. 

As to is a preposition. 

22. Nobody went but me. 

But is a preposition. 

23. During the battle, a line of soldiers stood behind the wall. 

24. Out of the depths have I cried unto thee. 



LESSON 10. 

THE THREE COMPLEMENTS. 

If we say, John runs, the verb runs asserts all that John 
does, and the predicate is complete. 

But if we say, John saws or John is, the verbs saws and 
is do not assert all we mean to say about John. Saws and 
is, therefore, are incomplete predicates. 



32 PRACTICAL LESSONS TN ENGLISH. 

If, now, we add the word wood to saws, and say, John 
saws wood, and also add the word lazy to is, and say, John is 
lazy, then we have made the incomplete predicates complete. 

The word used to make an incomplete predicate 
complete is called a complement. 

If we look at these two sentences again, John saws 
wood, John is lazy, we will see that the complement wood 
names the thing which receives the action done by John 
and asserted by the verb saws ; while the word lazy is used 
in a different way. Lazy is an adj ective denoting a certain 
quality of the subject John. If we say John is a farmer, 
the word farmer is used to name a certain quality of the 
subject John. Lazy and farmer are used alike ; they are 
the same kind of complement. 

They are called subjective complements, because they 
complete the predicate and refer to the subject. 

Wood is called an object complement, because it 
completes the predicate, and names the object which 
receives the action expressed by the verb. 

In the following sentences, which are subjective comple- 
ments, and which object complements ? 

1. Birds build nests. 

2. Tubal Cain was the first blacksmith. 

3. The ant is never idle. 

4. ' ' Bucephalus ' ' was the name of a famous horse. 

5. The mountain and the squirrel had a quarrel. 

6. The squirrel was called a " little prig " by the mountain. 

There is a third kind of complement. In the sentence, 
John made the knife sharp, the word knife is the object 
complement, but not of the verb made. John did not 
make a knife. Made must have something added to its 
meaning, before it can take the object complement knife. 



COMPLEMENTS. 33 

This added meaning is in the adjective sharp. John 
made — sharp the knife. 

But the adjective sharp does more than complete the 
verb made; it also belongs to the object complement 
knife. The same is true of the noun captain in the sen- 
tence, They made me captain. 

Such complements are called objective complements, 
because they complete the predicate, and refer to the 
object complement. 

Supply complements for the following incomplete predi- 
cates, and indicate the kind : — 

Model,. — 1. Shakespeare was a . 

Shakespeare was a poet. 

Poet is a subjective complement, because it completes the predicate 
was, and belongs to the subject Shakespeare. 

2. Caterpillars become . 

3. He was called a . 



4. They named the child 

5. Napoleon was a great 

6. The clerk wrote many 

7. This apple is . 

8. This flower smells 

9. That tree looks very - 



10. The owl has very large . 

11. The doctor considered the man very . 

12. Jack Sprat would eat no . 

1 3. did you say ? 

14. Alexander called his Bucephalus. 

Analyze the following sentences : — 
1. Don't kill the birds. 

In the diagram, the object comple- 
ment is placed to the right of the 
predicate, on a line drawn from the 
birds lower extremity of a short vertical 

j the line which separates the verb from 
its complement. N't = not. 



n't 



34 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

2. The boy found the ball on the roof of the verandah. 

3. What fun we will have on the next holiday ! 

4. Grammar is not a very difficult study. 

Grammar I 

[ is — study A dash separates the 

i not ! a ! difficult verb from the sub J ect " 



very 



ive complement. 



Not seems to modify difficult, but it is the being expressed by the verb 
which is denied. 

5. The longest life is short. 

6. Washington was a punctual man. 

7. The fur of the ermine becomes white in winter. 

8. They call me chief. 

In the diagram the objective 

They I complement is placed between the 

I call 4- chief I V erb and the object complement, 

! — Hi^ — and is separated from the verb by 

a plus-mark. 

9. The people elected him president. 

10. We found the journey very long. 

11. Peter Minuit was made the first governor of New York. 

12. A mouse bit me on the hand. 

1 3. Blessed are the pure in heart. 

Pure is here used as a noun. 

14. Every teacher has a diligent pupil. 

15. Napoleon died an exile. 

16. Did you find the task very difficult? 

17. Where did you buy that book? 

Write two sentences, each containing a subjective com- 
plement ; two, each containing an object complement ; and 
tivo, each containing an objective complement. 

REVIEW. 
1. What is a complement? 2. Name the different complements. 
3. Define each complement. 4. In the diagram, what mark is before 
each complement? 



ANALYSIS. 



35 



LESSON 11. 

What is a compound subject? (See Lesson 8.) What 
is a compound predicate ? What is a conjunction ? 

Analyze the folloiving sentences : — 
1. John rides and walks. 



John 



rides 



and 



walks 



For the compound predicate, two lines (or 
as many as are needed) are drawn from the 
vertical line which separates the subject from 
the predicate, and a vertical dotted line con- 
nects them. The conjunction is written be- 
tween two horizontal lines, which cut the 
connecting line. * 

2. John rides in the morning, and walks in the evening. 

3. We went to the woods, and gathered moss. 

4. Peter Minuit traded with the Indians, and bought the whole 
of Manhattan Island for twenty-four dollars. 

5. The boys and girls of this school read and write many com- 
positions and letters. 



boys 


read 




and 
i girls 1 




and 
write ! 


compositions 


i The 
of , school 


and 
letters ! 








1 

! this 




many 



6. The trees, and the grass, and the flowers are becoming more 
beautiful. 

7. Victor Hugo was a French scholar, poet, and statesman. 

And is to be supplied after scholar. 



36 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

8. We were caught in a shower and thoroughly drenched, 
wer e caught 

in shower 



We 



and 



drenched 



'■ thoroughly 

9 I consider the task easy and pleasant. 
10 There are many boys and girls in this school. 
There is an introductory word, not a modifier It serves to introduce 
the predicate and place the subject after the verb, 
boys 



and 
girls ! 



There 



11. There are two large books and four small books there. 

12. I consider him an enemy. 

13 Franklin began as an apprentice, but soon became proprietor. 
As is an introductory word, introducing apprentice. 

14. The cow eats grass during the day, and chews the cud at 

night. , 

15. They selected him as guide and attendant. 



Using the following verbs as predieates, eompose sen- 
tences containing objective complements. Let some of the 
objective complements be compound, and let some be intra- 
duced by as: — 

Consider, find, elect, name, make, appoint, choose. 

Compose three sentences, each containing a compound 
subjective complement, and three, each containing a com- 
pound object complement. 



THE INDIRECT OBJECT. 37 

LESSON 12. 

He gave me a book. In this sentence, book is the object 
complement, because it completes the verb gave and names 
that on which its action terminates ; but the word me does 
not do either of these things. Me does not complete the 
verb gave, because gave is already completed by the word 
book ; neither does it name that on which the action ter- 
minates ; he did not give me, but he gave the book. Me 
only stands for the person toward whom, or for whose 
benefit, the action was done. 

In the Anglo-Saxon, the mother of the English lan- 
guage (and also in other languages), such words were called 
dative objects; but the English language has no dative 
case, therefore, most English grammarians have agreed to 
call such words indirect objects (not complements). 

Definition. — The indirect object names that toward 
which the action asserted by the verb is directed, but 
not that which receives the action. 

REMARKS. 

1. Sometimes the object complement is omitted. The indirect object 
then becomes the object complement. In the sentence, He taught Wil- 
liam grammar, if grammar is omitted, William becomes the object com- 
plement, — He taught William. 

2. Only verbs that have object complements can have indirect objects, 
and not all of such verbs have them. 1 Could either of the verbs in 

1 We should avoid using such sentences as, John struck the ball a hard 
blow, because struck is a verb that does not take an indirect object. 

There may even be doubt as to whether ball is here conceived of as an 
indirect object. Struck seems to be thought of in a double sense — the 
ordinary sense of strike, which takes an object, and the cognate meaning 
which is found in such sentences as, He ran a race ; He lived a useful life. 
The foregoing sentence then would mean, first, that he struck aball; and 
secondly, in a cognate sense, that he struck a blow. The use of such ex- 
pressions is to be discouraged. 



38 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

these sentences have an indirect object? Children love candy. John 



3. The indirect object does not always name a person. We may say, 
He gave me a book, He gave the horse his oats, or He gave the chair a shove. 
The first indirect object names a person ; the second, an animal ; the 
third, a thing. 

4. Because we sometimes say He gave a book to me instead of, He gave 
me a book, some have preferred to call me and all words so used the 
principal term of a prepositional phrase, supplying the preposition 
when none is expressed; but, in Anglo-Saxon and other languages, 
there were, as in English, two ways of expressing such thoughts. When 
no preposition was expressed, the dative case was used, but when the 
preposition was expressed, the noun or pronoun was put in a different 
case. This shows that throughout their history the two constructions 
have been different, and that they are not both indirect objects, nor both 
governed by prepositions. 

The facts that the position must be changed when the preposition is 
used, and that the mind does not think the preposition when it is not 
used, would be sufficient reason for not supplying it, even if we had no 
historical proof. 

Make sentences containing indirect objects, choosing one 
of the following verbs for the predicate in each : — 

Make, ask, read, tell, send, lend, write, give, buy, ad- 
vance, allow, bring, cost, deny, do, envy, teach, forward, 
offer. 

Analyze the following sentences : — 
1. He gave me a book. 

He_ 

gave 

book 



2. The lad told his father a falsehood. 

3. The stranger asked the innkeeper many questions. 

4. The indulgent father bought his son a watch. 

5. The wounded Sir Philip Sydney gave a dying soldier the 
water. 



THE rOSSESSIVE. 



39 



I 



6. I gave the man forty cents for a ball and twenty cents for a bat. 



The phrase numbered l mod- 
ifies that meaning of gave 
which takes forty cents for its 
complement, and the one 
numbered 2 modifies that 



j gave 










man 


cents 




! ! fortv 


i 


for , ball 


and 


2 


I 
for , bat 


; cents 2 






1 


1 



twenty 



meaning of 
takes twenty 
complement. 



gave which 
cents for its 



7. He taught me grammar and geography. 

8. Adversity teaches men and women industry and economy. 

REVIEW. 
I. What is an indirect object? 2. What name had it in other lan- 
guages? 3. Why? 4. Why is it not a complement? 5. What predi- 
cates do not have indirect objects? 6. What three kinds of things 
may indirect objects name? 7. What historical reason have we for 
not supplying a preposition to govern indirect objects ? 8. What other 
reasons not historical ? 



LESSON 13. 

We learned in Lesson 7 that a word which modifies a 
noun or pronoun is called an adjective ; but in the sentence 
Johns hat is lost, you see that the word Johns gives its 
meaning to hat, — modifies the noun hat ; and yet Johns 
is not an adjective, but a noun, — the name of a person. 

Nouns, therefore, can have other modifiers besides adj ec- 
tives. This word Johns modifies the noun hat by express- 
ing whose hat ; that is, by denoting ownership or posses- 
sion, and such a modifier is called a possessive modifier, — 
often simply a possessive. The pronoun his is also a pos- 
sessive modifier in the sentence, His hat is lost. 

Definition. — A possessive is a noun or pronoun 
modifying some other noun or pronoun by denoting" 
possession. 



40 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

In the sentence, Johns hat is black, notice that the pos- 
sessive Johns is made by suffixing ('s) to the noun John. 

Nouns that denote more than one, and also end in s, 
suffix the apostrophe (') only ; as, The six tall boys hats 
hang high. 

The possessives of pronouns do not have the apostrophe ; 
as, its, his, hers, etc. 1 

Make possessives of the words in these two columns by 
adding (') or ('s), and then use them in sentences : — 

(1) (2) 

lady, ladies, 

girl, girls, 

mouse, mice, 

man, men. 

Analyze these sentences : — - 

1. John's hat is black. 

hat The diagram for the possessive modifier is the 

John's same as that for the adjective modifier. 

2. A miller and his son were driving their donkey to a fair. 

3. They trudged along behind their donkey, and became tired. 

4. Some girls by the wayside ridiculed them and their donkey. 

5. ' ' Why do you not ride, and thus make yourselves more com- 
fortable?" 

6. This question was asked by the girls. 

7. Then the miller put his son on the donkey's back, and walked 
alone. 

8. Soon some old men rebuked the lad. 

9. " You do not treat your tired father well." 

10. Therefore, the miller took his son's place on the beast's back. 

11. They next met a great company of women and children. 

1 If the use of the apostrophe with nouns were discontinued, it would 
hardly he missed. Archdeacon Hare and other eminent scholars advo- 
cated its omission early in the present century, and the movement still 
meets with some encouragement from certain publishing-houses in 
England and America. 



ANALYSIS. 41 

12. " Why do you not walk and put your poor, tired little boy on 
the donkey's back?" 

1 3. Then he placed the lad behind himself on the donkey. 

14. Near the town, an officer of a society for the prevention of 
cruelty to animals cried out against them. 

15. " You should not ride a poor tired donkey to death." 

16. " You might, with. better reason, carry the donkey." 

17. Then they dismounted, tied the donkey's legs together with 
stout cords, placed a pole between his legs, put the ends of the pole 
on their shoulders, and started across the bridge with him. 

18. Crowds of men and women laughed, shouted, clapped their 
hands, and frightened the donkey. 

19. The donkey kicked, broke the cords, tumbled off the pole, 
fell into the river, and was drowned. 

20. Do not follow everybody's advice. 

REVIEW. 
1. Define and illustrate a possessive. 2. What is the sign of posses- 
sion? 3. Is it always the same? 4. Do pronouns have it? 5. Give 
Archdeacon Hares views on its use with nouns. 



LESSON 14. 

Write a story about the miller and his donkey in your 
own words, using the thoughts found in Lesson 13, and 
adding as many of your own as you choose. 

After the story is ivritten, pick out and write by them- 
selves all the sentences that have only one subject and 
one predicate (simple or compound). 

Study the sentences thus selected, and state — 

1. Which are declarative, interrogative, imperative, or exclamatory. 

2. Which have compound- subjects or compound predicates. 

3. Which have subjective, object, or objective complements. 

4. Which have possessive modifiers. 

If any of these elements are not found, see whether any 
of the sentences can be changed so as to contain them. 



42 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



LESSON 15. 

In the sentence, Milton, the poet, was blind, the word 
poet is another name for Milton. It does not denote pos- 
session, neither does it, like an adjective, express some 
quality of Milton ; yet it does explain what kind of man 
Milton was ; that is, it gives its meaning to Milton, and 
must, therefore, be called a modifier. 

Such a modifier is sometimes called an explanatory 
modifier, because it explains or characterizes the word it 
follows ; but generally it is called an appositive (Lat. ad= 
along side of, +positus = placed). 

If the sentence read, The poet Milton was blind, Milton 
would be the appositive. So you see the position of a 
word helps in determining whether it is an appositive. 

Definition. — An appositive is a noun or pronoun 
used to explain some preceding- noun or pronoun by 
giving" another name for the same thing. 

Comma Rule. — Appositives with the words belonging 
to them are set off by the comma, unless (1) they are pronouns 
or (2) essential modifiers not compound. 

Ex. 1 . — Milton, the poet, was blind. 
The poet is not an essential modifier of Milton. It gives an addi- 
tional, but not a necessary, idea. Hence, it is set off by the comma. 

Ex. 2. — I myself will go. We should love each other. 
The appositives here are pronouns and need no punctuation. 

Ex. 3. — My brother Charles is a lawyer. 
The appositive Charles is here almost a necessary modifier. It points 
out a particular brother, and unites so closely, in meaning, with the 
word brother that its use occasions no break or interruption in thought. 
Hence, no comma is needed. 



APPOSITIVES. 43 

Ex. i.—3Iy brothers, Charles and Henry, are lawyers. 
Charles and Henry form a compound appositive ; hence, they must be 
set off by the comma. 

Punctuate the appositives in the following sentences : — 

1. Newton the great mathematician was very modest, 

2. Longfellow the poet wrote excellent prose but better poetry. 

3. The poet Longfellow wrote excellent prose but better poetry. 

4. The Emperor Augustus was a patron of the fine arts. 

5. Cyrus the king of Babylon made a decree. 

Analyze these sentences : — 

1. John, the industrious boy, took William's place as book- 
keeper. 

John = boy 

I took as 

I place 1 1 

i William's = book-keeper 



In the diagram, the appositive is placed after the word it explains, 
on the same line, the sign (=) being placed between them. 

The word book-keeper, which is in apposition with the possessive 
William's, is introduced by the introductory word as. 

2. Isaac brought Rebecca to his mother Sarah's tent. 

Mother is the possessive, but the possessive sign ('s) is joined to Sarah, 
which is in apposition with mother. (See Lesson 67.) 

3. John, James, and Henry all go to school. 

4. We should love each other. l 
Each is in apposition with we. 

5. The labors of Alexander Hamilton as a statesman were in- 
valuable. 

1 Each and other are often taken together as a pronoun, but a separate 
disposition of them is more in accordance with their true meaning. We 
should love each other means We each should love the other. The same is true 
of one another in the 7th sentence. The rule of some grammarians, that 
each other should be used in reference to two, and one another in reference 
to more than two, is not observed by good writers. 



44 



PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



beak 




implements 




and 
claws 


= 


and 
weapons 










are 



6. Alexander Hamilton, the statesman and financier, was killed 
in a duel with Aaron Burr, vice-president during Thomas Jefferson's 
administration. 

7. Men find fault continually with one another's acts. 

8. Richard, the Lion-hearted, on his return from the Holy Land 
found the government of England in the hands of his brother John. 

9. The eagle's beak and claws, its implements of support and 
weapons of defence, are the distinctive characteristics of this, the 
king of birds. 

In this sentence implements 
is an appositive of both beak 
and claws. The same is true 
of weapons. In the diagram 
the sign (=) must be placed 
between the compound subject 
and the compound appositive. 

10. Overshoes, or rubbers, are made of caoutchouc. 

Or is an introductory word, and retains its force as a conjunction. 

11. Milton, the poet, lived during Cromwell's rule as Protector. 

12. "Death on a Pale Horse" is the title of one of the best of 
the artist West's paintings. 

The word best modifies some word understood. The understood word 
is not expressed in the diagram (see Lesson 9), neither should it be 
parsed. It is referred to, only to show the relation of the word best to 
the rest of the sentence. This is true of all words understood. 

13. Irving's Life of Washington is his best work as an author. 
"Life of Washington " is a name, — the title of a book, and is treated 

of as one word. 

Write five sentences, each containing an appositive. 
Let two of the appositives be compound, and let one be 
introduced by as. 

REVIEW. 
1. Define nn appositive. 2. What is its position in a sentence? 3. 
What other name may be given it? 4. When should the appositive be 
set off by the comma? Illustrate. 5. When should no comma be 
used? Illustrate. 6. How should each in each other, and one in one 
another, be construed ? 



ADVERBIAL NOUNS. 45 



LESSON 16. 

John ran a race. John ran a mile. These two sen- 
tences are very different in construction. The noun race, 
in the first sentence, is the object complement of ran, but 
mile, in the second sentence, is not. Mile does not name 
that on which the action expressed by the verb terminates. 
In the second sentence, the action does not terminate on 
anything. John did not run anything ; he simply per- 
formed the action, and the word mile tells how far he ran. 

John ran far. John ran to town. John ran a mile. 

Far, in the first sentence, is an adverb modifying ran. 

To town, in the second sentence, is a prepositional 
phrase used in the same way. 

The noun mile, in the third sentence, is used in the 
same way. It is a modifier of the verb ran. A noun so 
used is called an adverbial noun. 1 

There are very few nouns in English that are used ad- 
verbially. They are generally nouns denoting time, place, 
distance, direction, value, weight, measure, and (rarely) 

manner. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. He went last night. (Time.) 

2. He went home. (Place.) 

3. He walked a mile. (Distance.) 

4. He traveled north. (Direction.) 

5. It is worth a dollar. (Value.) 

6. It cost a dollar & pound. (Weight.) 

7. It cost a dollar a yard. (Measure.) 

8. He had things his own ivay. (Manner.) 

1 The adverbial noun is often called an adverbial objective, because in 
inflected languages it is in the objective case. The word adverbial means 
lilce an adverb. 



46 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

The adverbial noun does not always modify a verb. It 
may also modify an adjective ; as, The child is a year old. 

Here the adverbial noun year modifies the adjective old. 

The adverbial noun may also modify an adverb ; as, He 
left an hour ago. 

Here the adverbial noun hour modifies the adverb ago. 

Definition. — An adverbial noun is a noun denoting" 
time, place, distance, direction, value, weight, meas- 
ure, or manner, used adverbially. 1 

Analyze the following sentences : — 
1. He went home last night. 



He 



went 



The adverbial noun, in the dia- 



home ; night gram, is treated like an adverb. 



last 



2. He paid me ten cents an hour for my work, and charged me 
twelve cents a meal for my board. 

3. A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush. 

The adjective two modifies the word birds understood. Birds (under- 
stood) is a word not usually used as an adverbial noun, but here it de- 
notes value, and is so used. Worth is an adjective. 

4. I was born not three hours' travel from this very place. 

5. Cowards die many times before their death. 

6. She watched for the ship all day long. 

7. We eat three times a day, and sleep one-third of our time. 

8. The village is a mile away. ' 

9. Only an hour ago, I offered him ten cents a quart for his 
berries. 

10. At sunrise, we will pursue our journey five miles farther. 

11. In this country, the sun shineth night and day. 

1 Now and then, such an adverbial noun is added to another noun with 
adjective value ; thus, my dream last night; his adventures this day. — Whit- 
ney. 



REVIEW LESSON. 47 

12. I am not a bit sleepy. 

13. He began it in 1887, and finished it just five years later. 

14. Five minutes in a crisis is worth years. 

REVIEW. 
1. Define an adverbial noun. 2. What does adverbial mean in this 
name? 3. What nouns may be used adverbially? 4. What may 
adverbial nouns modify? 5. Do such nouns ever modify other nouns? 
Illustrate. 6. What name should be given to them then ? 



LESSON 17 



The teacher should insist on written answers to the following review 
questions, and see that each answer is a complete statement. If the 
lesson is too long, divide it. Let the pupils criticise each other's 
answers : 

1 . Define an idea ; a word ; a thought ; a sentence. 

2. How are sentences classified according to meaning ? 

3. Define each kind. 

4. How should each be punctuated ? 

5. Compose a sentence of each kind. 

6. Name the principal parts of a sentence. 

7. Define each. 

8. What parts of speech are generally used in subjects; in 
predicates? 

9. Define a verb ; a noun ; a pronoun ; a modifier. 

10. What is the difference between a simple subject or predicate, 
and a modified subject or predicate ? 

11. Define a phrase ; a preposition. 

12. How should phrases be punctuated? Illustrate. 

1 3. Define an adjective ; an adverb ; a conjunction ; an interjec- 
tion. 

1 1. What is a compound subject? a compound predicate? 
15. Explain and illustrate the punctuation of interjections and 
exclamatory expressions. 

1 G. What can you say of the use of and Oh ? 

17. What is a diagram? Are diagrams useful? Why? 

18. Name, define, and illustrate the different complements. 



48 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

19. What is an indirect object? Illustrate. 

20. Define a possessive. Illustrate. 

21. What is the sign of possession ? How is it used? 

22. Define an appositive. Illustrate. 

23. How are appositives punctuated ? 

24. What are adverbial nouns ? 

25. Name and illustrate the kinds of nouns that may be used 
adverbially. 

LESSON 18. 

Comma Rule. — Two words of the same part of speech 
connected by a conjunction are separated by the comma (1) 
when one has a modifier that without the comma would 
seem to belong to both ; (2) when the conjunction is under- 
stood; as, 

1. I have a ivatch, and a knife with, six blades. 

2. We are fearfully, wonderfully made. 

Insert commas ivliere they are needed in the following 
sentences, giving reasons : — 

1 . The tenant is clearly entitled to the annual crops and wood for 
fuel. 

2. Learning is the ally the friend of genius. 

3. Disgrace ruin stared him in the face. 

4. Most fuel consists of coal and wood from the forests. 

Comma Rule. — When more than two words or phrases 
occur in a series, they should be separated by the comma 
whether connected by conjunctions or not. 1 

Examples. — 1. The discourse was beautifully, elegantly, and forcibly 
delivered. 

2. Worthy is the Lamb that was slain to receive power, and riches, and 
wisdom, and strength, and honor, and glory, and blessing. 

1 Some writers omit the comma in cases where the conjunction is used. 
But as the conjunction is generally employed in such cases for emphasis, 
commas ought to be used. -Bigelow's Handbook of Punctuation. 



PUNCTUATION. 49 

Insert commas where needed in the following sentences, 
giving your reasons : — 

1. The spirit of the Almighty is within around and above us. 

2. Diamonds are found in India in Africa and in South America. 

3. The trees and the grass and the flowers are Nature's dress and 
ornaments. 

4. Boys and girls sing play and study. 

5. The judge the lawyers and the jury were convinced of the 
prisoner's guilt. 

Comma Rule. — When words are used in pairs, each 
pair should be followed by a comma ; as, Sink or swim, live 
or die, survive or perish, I give my hand and my heart to 
this vote. 

Insert commas where needed in the following sentences, 
giving reasons: — 

1. We should show the same kind consideration for rich or poor 
great or small man or woman friend or enemy. 

2. The poor and the rich the weak and the strong the young and 
the old have a common Father. 

The following sentences involve all the rules for punc- 
tuation and capital letters given thus ftir. 

Copy the following sentences, inserting capital letters 
and marks of punctuation where needed, and write your 

reasons : — 

1. in these sentences many commas and capital letters are needed 

2. what mark did you place at the end of the preceding sentence 

3. oh what a beautiful crimson cloud 

4. the eagle the hawk and the owl are birds of prey 

5. John goes to school in the winter and works on his father's 
farm in the summer 

6. december January and february are the winter months 

7. i saw a horse and a cow with crooked horns 

8. Joshua the great Jewish general was a pious man 

9. at the end of this sentence place an appropriate mark 

4 



50 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

10. i myself will attend to the matter 

11. the predicate of this sentence is compound and needs a 
comma between its parts 

12. ha ha ha what a funny looking little old man 

13. John's brother charles and henry's brothers james and Joseph 
are classmates 

14. the skull or cranium protects the brain from injury 

15. hope and fear pleasure and pain success and failure diversify 
our lives 

16. the town consists of three hundred inhabitants and fifty 
houses built of brick 

17. a large opening or inlet lay just before us 



LESSON 19. 

Write a short anecdote from the following suggestions : — 

A dog, his name . 

Harry six years old, Jennie four. 
A pond. 
A toy boat. 
A doctor. 

A gilt collar for . 

Inscription on the collar. 

Write the story in ink ; bring it to class neatly folded, as directed by the 
teacher, with your name written across one end. 

In class, exchange papers, and find mistakes in spelling, the use of capitals, 
punctuation, and paragraphing. 

How to mark mistakes : — 

1. Draw a line above each misspelled word, and place the word 
Spell "spell" in the margin opposite; as, I recieved your letter. 

2. Draw a line above each word containing a mistake in the 
Cap. use or omission of the capital, and place the abbreviation " Cap." 

in the margin ; as, My brother lives in the west. 

3. Place a caret below each mistake in the use or omission of a 
Punc. mark of punctuation, and place the abbreviation " Punc." in the 

margin; as, Here is given an account, of Jonathan eldest 

son of Saul A and David. 
A 



COMPOSITION. 51 

4. When a mistake in paragraphing occurs, place the paragraph sign (^[) 
in the margin, and also above ivhat should be the first word of the paragraph. 
When a paragraph l is made to begin where it should not, the word " no " 
placed before the sign (no ^) will indicate the mistake. 

5. Grammatical errors may be enclosed in brackets [ ]. 

REVIEW. 
1. How many compound sentences did you make in your story? 2. 
How many simple ones? 3. How many that are neither simple nor 
compound? 4. How many declarative ? 5. How many interrogative? 
6. How many imperative? 7. How many exclamatory? 8. How 
many with compound subjects? with compound predicates? with com- 
pound complements? 9. How many indirect objects did you use? 
10. How many adverbial nouns? 

See ivhether you can change any of the sentences, so as 
to contain constructions you have not used, without chang- 
ing the meaning. 



To the teacher : — 

Each pupil should be required to copy on the b'ack-board one or 
more mistakes, and write underneath, his reason for each correction. 
If the recitation period is short, this exercise in correcting should 
be made the subject of another lesson. It will pay to spend two or 
three days on this kind of work, and to return to it once or twice at 
intervals of ten days or two weeks. 

Give careful attention to the review questions in this and all 
lessons. 

If the class has passed through the book once, the teacher should 
give suggestions for a different story. Perhaps the following may 
be useful: — 

A dog, named . 

Three children, the oldest a boy of seven. 

1 A paragraph is a portion of any written or printed composition, con- 
sisting of one sentence, or a group of sentences closely related in thought. 
It is designated by the commencement of a new line, indented, or begun 
farther from the left-hand margin than the other lines. 

(The two foregoing sentences, being closely related, form a paragraph, 
and are properly indented.) 



52 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

A little wagon ; a harness for . 

A ride across a neighboring field. 

A hare ; a chase ; the trunk of a fallen tree. 

An upset, — wagon broken. 

A captured hare ; a triumphal march home. 



LESSON 20. 

INFINITIVES. 

Verbs that assert action about a particular subject have 
been called finite verbs. Finite means limited ; and a 
finite verb is one that is so limited that it cannot be used, 
unless it has a subject. Verbs not finite are not limited 
in their use ; that is, they express action in a general way, 
but not about a particular subject. Such verbs are called 
infinitives (in = not -f- finite). A verb may have two in- 
finitive forms ; one called the present infinitive, and the 
other the perfect infinitive. 

Definition. — An infinitive is a form of the verb 
used to express action, being", or condition in a gen- 
eral way, but not about a particular subject. 

(To) 1 run is the present infinitive of the verb run, and 
(to) have run is the perfect infinitive of the same verb. 

1 The infinitive is usually (not always) introduced by the preposition 
to, and to is, therefore, often incorrectly called a part of the infinitive; 
but in Anglo-Saxon to was not used except before the gerund (a certain 
form of the infinitive), where it always had full force as a preposition; 
as, Ut eode se ssedere to sawenne = Out went the sower to sow. 

When, in the transition of Anglo-Saxon into English, the gerund lost 
its ending tie, so that it did not differ in form from the other infinitives, 
it was difficult to distinguish the gerund ; hence to came to be placed 
before all infinitives. The original force of to as a preposition may still 
be seen in such expressions as, I have an ax to grind (for grinding), and 
He strives to succeed (for success or for succeeding). 



OFFICES OF THE INFINITIVE. 53 

The present infinitive is the simple form of the verb ; as, 
(to) walk ; the perfect infinitive is the past participle of the 
verb (see Lesson 23) preceded by the word have ; as, (to) 
have -\- walked. 

Write the infinitives of the following verbs : — 
Talk, hear, see, lend, make, read, learn. 

Uses of the Infinitive. 

Analyze the following sentences, and name the infinitives 
in each : — 

The infinitive phrase used as subject. 
1. To read good books promotes knowledge. 

To | re i ad | , , The infinitive phrase 

— ; used as subject is analyzed 

! good by itself, and set upon the 

, subject line by means of a 

promotes ' 



knowledge pedestal. 

2. To teach idle pupils is a hard and disagreeable task. 
The infinitive phrase used as object complement. 

3. He tries to learn. 

4. Alexander wanted to conquer more worlds. 

The infinitive phrase used as subjective comple- 
ment. 

5. He appeared to be very studious. 

6. To hesitate in a crisis is to fail. 

The infinitive phrase used as objective comple- 
ment. 

7. They compelled Galileo to recant. 

to , recant 



compelled -f 



Galileo 



54 PRACTICAL LESSONS JN ENGLISH. 

8. A fool always finds a greater fool to admire him. 

The infinitive phrase used as adjective modifier. 

9. A desire to read good books is an evidence of noble character. 

desire 

| to read I 

I books 



10. There is a time to laugh and a time to be sober. 



LESSON 21. 

The infinitive phrase used as adverb modifier. 

1. The farmer fertilizes his field to insure a bountiful harvest. 

2. Some people are always ready to find fault. 

The infinitive used in a prepositional phrase. 

3. John Hartman is about to sell his farm. 

t se n I The prepositional phrase, about to 

I j farm sell his farm, is used as subjective com- 

about | plement. The infinitive phrase, to 

sell his farm, is the principal term of 
18 L . the prepositional phrase. 



4. There was nothing to do but to submit. 

The infinitive with its assumed subject after the 
preposition for, 

5. For him to consent to such a bargain is disgraceful. 

him Him is here the assumed subject 



For 



to consent °^ ^ e i n fi n iti ve consent. By an 

I assumed subject is meant thnt 

about which an infinitive or a 

participle assumes or expresses its 

is action, being, or condition. 

6. For an American citizen to stay away from the polls on elec- 
tion day is traitorous, 



OFFICES OF THE INFINITIVE. 55 

The infinitive phrase used in apposition. 

7. This privilege, to vote for the officers of the government, 
belongs to every American citizen. 

to , vote 



privilege 



8. It is impossible to please everybody. 

All expressions in apposition with the pronoun it used as subject, 
stand at the end of the sentence instead of immediately after the word 
it; but in the diagram, they are placed, like all other appositives, next 
to the word explained. 

9. It is discourteous for you to blow tobacco-smoke in your 
neighbor's face. 

The infinitive phrase used independently. 

10. To tell the truth. I began to grow weary. 

To j tell I 

1 truth T n the diagram, inde- 

,' the pendent expressions of all 

kinds should be placed 
to grow -weary above the regt of the gen . 



I 



began 



tence. 



11. To make a long story short, Rip Van Winkle slept twenty 
years. 

REVIEW. 

1. What is an infinitive? (Lesson 20.) 2. Why is it so named? 

3. Name the infinitives a verb may have, and state how each is formed. 

4. What Avord introduces most infinitives ? 5. Is this Avord considered 
a part of the infinitive it is used Avith, or a separate element ? Why ? 
6. How many different uses of the infinitiA r e are illustrated in Lessons 
20 and 21? 7. What is meant by an assumed subject of an infinitive 
or a participle? 8. When an infinite phrase is in apposition with 
the pronoun it used as subject, what is its proper position in a sentence? 
9. Where is it placed in the diagram? 10. Where are independent 
expressions placed in the diagram? 



56 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



LESSON 22. 

Analyze the following sentences, and name the infin- 
itives : — 

1. The frog in the fable tried to learn to sing. 

2. To be humble is to be wise. 

3. It is wise to be humble. 

4. To say nothing of his greatness of character, Washington 
seems to have been almost an intellectual and physical giant. 

5. Suppose your task, my little man, be very hard to get. 

6. Will it make it any easier for you to sit and fret? 

7. The train for New York is about to start. 

8. A little downy chick, one day, asked leave to go on the water. 

9. To tell the truth, Benedict Arnold was jealous. 

10. To deny valor in a conquered enemy, is to underrate our vic- 
tory. 

11. Abundant rain and warm sunshine cause vegetation to become 
luxuriant. 

Compose sentences to illustrate the ten uses of the 
infinitive. 1 



LESSON 23. 

Horses run is a sentence, because it expresses a thought, 
and has a subject and predicate. But Horses running does 
not express a complete thought, because it has no predicate. 
Running does not assert action, — does not state that horses 
do actually run, but implies that they do. So you see run- 
ning is not a verb, but very much like one. 

It is like an adjective too. This may be seen, if we add 
a predicate, and say, Horses, running, travel fast. Run- 

1 To the Teacher. — Do not leave the subject of infinitives, till every 
pupil in the class can illustrate the ten uses, readily and with original 
sentences. 



THE PARTICIPLE. 57 

ning here modifies the noun horses; hence, its adjective 
nature. 

Running is hard work. Here running has the nature 
of a verb and also of a noun. It not only implies action, 
but also names the action, and is used as the subject of 
the sentence. 

This verb running, derived from the verb run, and par- 
taking of two natures, one being that of the verb, and the 
other that of either the adjective or noun, is called a par- 
ticiple (Lat. pars — a part, + capere = to take), 

Definition. — A participle is a form of the verb 
which has the nature partly of a verb and partly of 
an adjective or noun. 

Three participles may be derived from every verb ; 
namely, 

(1) A present participle, implying action or being as 
continuing ; as, freezing. 

(2) A past participle, implying action or being as past ; 
as, frozen. 

(3) A perfect participle, implying completed action or 
being ; as, having frozen. 

The present participle is formed by suffixing ing to 
the simple form of the verb ; as, ivalk + ing. 

The past participle may sometimes be formed by suf- 
fixing ed to the verb (walk-\-ed), but very often its form 
is so irregular that it must be learned from a dictionary, or 
from a list, such as you will find at the end of this book. 

The perfect participle is formed of two words ; the 
word having followed by the past participle of the verb ; 
as, having-}- walked. 

Write the participles of the following verbs : — 
Walk, talk, laugh, help, turn, see, eat, ride, sing, buy. 



58 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

Participles like verbs have modifiers and complements. 

A participle with all the words belonging to it forms a 
group of words expressing related ideas. What is such a 
group of words called ? 

Uses of Participles. 

Analyze the followiiig sentences, and name the parti- 
ciples in them: — 

The participial phrase used as subject. 
1. Reading good books promotes knowledge. 

The double nature of 
Reading 

books 



the participle is indi- 
cated, in the diagram, 
by writing it upon two 
good parallel lines. The pu- 

pil should in each case 

determine what the two 

| promotes . 

knowledge natures are, remember- 

ing that one is always 
that of a verb. 

2. My being present should make no difference. 

3. Shaking the bottle will not destroy the bitterness of the 
medicine. 

The participial phrase used as object complement. 

4. Avoid eating too fast. 

5. His losing his way prevented his returning promptly. 

The participial phrase used as subjective comple- 
ment. 

6. We stood watching the game of ball. 

7. The best of a journey is getting home. 

8. The philosopher sat buried in thought. 

The participial phrase used as objective comple- 
ment. 

9. I saw a squirrel eating a nut. 
10. We saw the train moving away. 



OFFICES OF THE PARTICIPLE. 



59 



The participial phrase used as an adjective mod- 
ifier. 

11. A squirrel, sitting on a tree, ate a nut. 
squirrel ■ 



ate 



sitting 



nut 



on , tree 



12. Water continually dropping wears even stones. 



LESSON 24. 

The participial phrase used after a preposition. 
1. (rood morals are corrupted by reading bad books. 
corrupted 

reading 



by 



books 



bad 



2. We grow tired of doing nothing. 

The participial phrase used in apposition. 

3. This task, analyzing sentences, is profitable. 

The participle used in an absolute phrase. 

4. The man being very sick, his son sent for the doctor, 
man 



being — sick 



The 



very 



The absolute phrase, like all other 
independent expressions, is placed in 
the diagram above the principal part 
of the sentence. 



sent 



Definition. — An absolute phrase is a participle 
with its assumed subject used independently. 



60 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

5. The pot having swallowed the ladle, the dish ran after the spoon. 

The independent participial phrase. 

6. Judging from his accent, he must be a foreigner. 

The independent participle has no assumed subject. In this alone it 
differs from the absolute phrase. Some call both absolute, since the word 
absolute means independent; but this is confusing to pupils. In the 
diagram each stands alone above the subject of the sentence. 

7. Considering his advantages, he is well educated. 

REVIEW. 
1. What is a participle? (Lesson 23.) 2. Name and define each 
of the three participles which a verb may have. 3. How are the 
present and perfect participles formed ? 4. What of the formation of 
the past participle? 5. Define an absolute phrase. (Lesson 24.) 6. 
How does an absolute phrase differ from an independent participial 
phrase? 7. How many different uses of the participle are illustrated 
in Lessons 23 and 24? 8. Compose short sentences to illustrate each 
use. 



LESSON 25. 

A participle may lose its verb nature, and become 

a noun; as, The reading of good books is profitable. 

Here reading is a noun ; not a participle. 

It often requires close examination to distinguish a participle from a 
noun. In the sentence, Teaching is tiresome, teaching is a participle, be- 
cause it not only names the action, but implies the doing of it ; while in 
the sentence, Teaching is a useful occupation, teaching is a name only, and 
is therefore a noun. 

A participle may lose its verb nature and become 
an adjective ; as, The leaving flag ivas seen afar. Here 
waving modifies the noun flag, without implying action. 
Its position, too, just before the noun, is the proper posi- 
tion for the adjective; while the proper position for the 
participle is after the noun it modifies. The difference in 
meaning between The flag, waving, and The waving flag, 
may readily be seen. 



OFFICES OF THE PARTICIPLE. 61 

A participle may become an adverb ; as, The water 
is scalding hot. 

This use is peculiar, because a participle has no adverb 
nature. It may not, therefore, be said to have retained 
any of its original nature, but to have taken upon itself 
one entirely different. 

Certain participles become prepositions ; as, During 
the dag, the owl sleeps. 

The following list contains those usually so used : — 

Barring, bating, concerning, during, excepting, notwithstanding, 
pending, regarding, respecting, saving, touching. 

Participles that have become nouns, adjectives, adverbs, 
or prepositions are not placed on double lines in the dia- 
gram. They do not differ in any way from other nouns, 
adjectives, adverbs, and prepositions, and are studied in 
this lesson, only because of their origin. 

Analyze the following sentences, name the participles, 
and point out those parts of speech that are participles 
only in form : — 

1. The traveling salesman, notwithstanding his accustomed 
punctuality, missed seeing his customer that morning. 

2. All day long the summer breeze kept whispering love to the 
bended trees. 

3. Persimmons saw his " granny " fast fading from his view. 

4. His heart being heavy with sorrow, he spoke not a word, but 
during the entire evening, sat looking intently at the blazing fire. 

5. Speaking of awful sights, have you ever watched the black- 
ened front of an advancing thunder storm, lighted up now and then 
by flashes of lurid lightning? 

6. I remember an old reading book containing a picture of an 
angry bear, hugging a tea-kettle filled with scalding hot water. 

7. One of the busy working bees, evidently made angry by my 
inquiring too closely into the domestic economy of her home, came 
buzzing about my head. 



62 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

8. Our recruits stood shivering and rubbing their hands 
shivering 



stood 



As shivering has no 
complement, it need not 
and rubbing be placed on a pedestal 

hands in the diagram. 



9. Finding himself deprived by his present employment, of the 
society and pleasures of the town, he soon returned to London, to 
his old occupation, dyeing and renovating clothes. 

10. Exercising one's privilege of voting for the candidate of his 

choice, will not justify electing the wrong man. 

a 

REVIEW. 
1. What parts of speech do participles sometimes become? 2. Are 
they then participles? 3. In the diagram, how are they treated? 4. 
In the sentences of this lesson, how many present participles are there ? 
past ? perfect ? 



LESSON 26. 

Compose sentences illustrating the thirteen uses of par- 
ticiples. 

To the Teacher. — Do not leave the subject of participles until you 
are certain that each pupil can illustrate the thirteen uses of the parti- 
ciple readily and with original examples. 



LESSOR 27. 

Analyze the following sentences : — 

1. He commanded the tree to be cut down. 

2. He commanded us to cut down the tree. 

Here the infinitive phrase to cut down the tree is object complement of 
commanded, and us is indirect object (He commanded or demanded of us 
the cutting of the tree) ; while in the first sentence, to be cut down is ob- 
jective complement, and tree is object complement. 1 

1 It often requires close examination to distinguish the one construc- 
tion from the other, but a careful application of the definitions for the 



^ ANALYSIS— PARTICIPLES AND INFINITIVES. 63 

3. Washington's refusing to be President the third time proved 
him to be a true statesman. 

4. During the whole campaign, Arnold sought to find a chance to 
betray his country. 

5. A man unwilling to work should not be allowed to eat. 

6. We saw him throw the stone. 

I throw I 

stone . 



' him 



The infinitive throw has no preposition. We do not think the prep- 
osition when we use the sentence, hence none need be recognized in the 
diagram. 

To is seldom used before active infinitives that follow the verbs bid, 
dare, feel, hear, have, help, let, make, need, see, and other verbs kindred in 
meaning. The use of the infinitive after these verbs in English, is a 
remnant of the Anglo-Saxon use of the infinitive. (See Lesson 20.) 

7. Our train being delayed by a wreck, we did not arrive in time 
to hear the lecturer speak on that subject. 

8. Several persons saw the prisoner commit the crime. 

REVIEW. 
1. Explain the difference between He made me go and He told me to 
go. 2. Compose five sentences, each containing an infinitive phrase 
used as objective complement. 3. Name the verbs after which the 
infinitive is used without to. 4. Use each of these verbs as the pred- 
icate of a sentence followed by an infinitive. Ex. — I dare go. 

indirect object and the object complement will determine most cases. 
For example, in the sentence He let me go, the action of letting (or allow- 
ing) is directed toward me, but terminates on the going. It is the going 
that is allowed or permitted. He told me to go, He asked me to go, He re- 
quested me to go, He forbade me to go, present the same construction. But 
He made me go, He saw me go, are different. Made and saiv express incom- 
plete action, which, when completed by the infinitives, terminate on the 
pronoun me. 

" In such cases as I told Mm to go, They forbade us to enter, the infinitive 
is really the direct object, and the pronoun the indirect object, of the 
verb, just as in the sentences Hold him a story, They forbade us entrance." 
— Whitney. 



64 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



LESSON 28. 

To the Teacher.— Divide this lesson if it is too long. Omit the 4th, 
5th, 7th, and 8th sentences with beginning classes. 

Analyze the following sentences : — 

1. It is vain to try to keep a secret from one having a right to 
know it. 

2. Having abandoned our vices, let us try to acquire virtue. 

3. To trifle much with subjects mean or low, proves the mind to 
be weak or makes it so. 1 

4. Galileo, called by some the Columbus of the heavens, ob- 
serving a large chandelier swinging to and fro, discovered the laws 
of the pendulum. 

5. Giant Despair, getting up in the morning early and walking 
up and down in his fields, caught Christian and Hopeful asleep in 
his grounds. 

6. Then with a grim and surly voice, he bade them awake, and 
asked them questions. 

7. T hales being asked to name the hardest thing in the world 
and the easiest thing in the world, called the hardest thing "to 
know one's self" and the easiest, "to find fault with another's 
acts. ' ' 

8. On the eve of the fatal day, Caesar being entertained by 
Lepidus, and the course of conversation being turned by some one 
upon the best kind of death to die, the great general cut short the 
discussion by declaring the death expected least to be the best. 

9. The farmer neglecting to plow in spring will have to beg in 
harvest. 

10. The swans on still St. Mary's Lake 
Float double, swan and shadow. 

11. The best discipline for an indolent man is to suffer the evils 
of penury. 

1 So, which here stands for weak, is objective complement. In 7s that 
so t it is subjective complement. In He said so, it is object complement. 
See 5th definition of so in Webster's Dictionary. Also, see Lesson 109. 



INDEPENDENT EXPRESSIONS. 65 



LESSON 29. 

INDEPENDENT EXPRESSIONS. 

In the sentence, John, ivhere did you find your ball? 
the word John is not the subject or predicate, neither is it 
a complement or modifier. It has no grammatical connec- 
tion whatever with the rest of the sentence, and yet it is 
so closely connected in meaning that, without it, the sen- 
tence would not express all its thought. Words and 
phrases like this, having no grammatical connection with 
the rest of the sentence in which they are used, are said 
to be independent. 

1. The word John in the foregoing sentence is used to 
let a certain person know that he is addressed, or spoken 
to ; hence, it is independent by address. 

2. The absolute phrase is independent; as, The 
horse being lame, we went no farther. 

3. The independent participial phrase is also num- 
bered among the independent expressions ; as, Judging 
from appearances, we shall have rain. 

4. Interjections and other exclamatory expressions 
are independent by exclamation ; as, Alas ! he will 
never return. Poor girl ! she will be sadly disappointed. 

5. Infinitive phrases are sometimes independent; 
as, To tell the truth, I forgot it. 

6. Prepositional phrases are sometimes independ- 
ent ; as, By the ivay, did you read about the wreck ? 

7. The words now, well, why, yes, and no are often 
used independently. 

The first three, placed at the beginning of the sentence, 
seem to be used to give an air of deliberation to the thought, 
or to gain time in formulating the expression. They should 

5 



66 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

be used sparingly. Yes and no are often but not always 
used as answers to questions. 1 

Ex. — Well, when will you go f Why, I will go soon ; 
Now, that is remarkable ; Yes, that is true ; Will you go 
with me ? No. 

8. Sometimes a full statement having no grammatical 
connection with the sentence, is thrown in between the 
parts of a sentence ; as, The mother gave her child ('twas 
all she had) a C7°ust of bread. This is called a paren- 
thetical expression, and is independent. 

9. Titles of books and of other printed or written pro- 
ductions are independent except when used in sentences ; 
^Lloyd's Literature for Little Folks. 

10. Thy rod and thy staff — they comfort me. In this 
sentence the words rod and staff name the things about 
which something is to be said, but do not form any part 
of the statement. The things named are represented in 
the statement by the pronoun they. Such an expression 

1 Some claim that yes and no in answers to questions are adverbs mod- 
ifying some word (expressed or understood) in the answer; as, Did you 
go? No = I did no (not) go. The absurdity of this argument maybe 
seen by carrying its application a little further. What does no modify 
when the answer is, No : I did not go; and what does yes modify in, Yes : 
I will go ? 

In answer to the last question, it has been argued that yes meaning 
certainly modifies will go, but we often say, Yes : I certainly will go. What 
does yes modify here? 

These words generally stand for a whole sentence. If the sentence were 
used instead of the word yes or no, it would not be a part of anything 
preceding or following it. The only reasonable conclusion, then, is, that 
these words like the words well, now, and why in the uses before men- 
tioned are independent. They are not independent adverbs, as some 
call them ; they are not adverbs of any kind. 

The fact that a word is an adverb in origin or in its ordinary use does 
not make it one when used independently. They are simply independent 
words, a class by themselves, too small to need any special name. The 
word amen at the end of prayers belongs to the same class. 



INDEPENDENT EXPRESSIONS. 67 

is called pleonasm (Greek, pleonasmos = more than 
enough), and is independent. Pleonasm should be used 
only in poetical or rhetorical composition. 

Analyze the following sentences, and state what kind 
of independent expression you find in each : — 

For the position of independent expressions in the diagram see Les- 
son 21. 

1. The smith, a mighty man is he. 

2. To say the least, it was unexpected. 

3. Well, what would you have me do? 

4. Talking of books, here is a rare one. 

5. Alas ! why comest thou at this dreadful moment to shock the 
peace of my departing soul ? 

6. Now, Hamlet, where' s Polonius? 

7. Why, man, he doth bestride the narrow world like a 
Colossus. 

Like is an adverb. 1 Supply the preposition to before Colossus. In 
old English to or unto was expressed in such sentences. 

8. The bridge being unsafe, we were afraid to cross it. 

9. In short, there were not enough provisions to go all the way 
round. 

10. Brooks's Higher Arithmetic, published by the Christopher 
Sower Co. 

11. No : I will not remind you of these things. 

Compose sentences illustrating the ten different kinds of 
independent expressions. 

1 Some call like in this construction a preposition, because near in a 
similar construction ( The tree near the fence was struck by lightning), is now 
generally recognized as a preposition. But near denotes simply relation 
or position, to denote which is the office of a preposition, while like de- 
notes quality or manner, to denote which is the office of an adjective or 
an adverb. 

The noun which follows like is not an indh*ect object, because an indi- 
rect object names that toward which action is directed. Since like does 
not in this construction express action, it can have no indirect object. 



68 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

LESSON 30. 

Comma Rule. — Independent expressions are set off by 
the comma, unless there is reason for using some other mark 
of punctuation. 

Eemaeks. — 1. The colon, dash, exclamation mark, and curves or 
marks of parenthesis, are also used to set off independent expressions. 

2. After yes and no, when the answer is more fully expressed in the 
remainder of the sentence, the colon is used; as, Ho you smoke t No: 
if I should ever poison myself, Vll do it in a way less offensive to my neighbor. 

3. Marks of parenthesis and dashes are used interchangeably to en- 
close independent expressions not strictly belonging to the sentences in 
which they occur ; as, For I know that in me (that is, in my flesh) dwelleth 
no good thing. 

4. After the last mark of parenthesis or before each of the dashes, a 
comma is placed, when the parts of the sentence between which the 
independent expression occurs, would, without the independent part, 
be separated by the comma ; as, He sold his horse (he was a fine Arabian 
steed), and gave the money to the wretched fakir ; or, He sold his horse, — he 
was a fine Arabian steed, — and gave the money to the wretched fakir. 

Punctuate the following sentences, giving the reason for 
each mark used: — 

1. Hark I hear the church-bell ringing 

2. To make a long story short they lived in obscurity the rest of 
their clays 

3. Can you sing No my voice is like a croaking frog's 

4. Well John where have .you been all day 

5. My aged father is he alive and well 

6. Generally speaking one will suffice 

7. The wind being favorable the squadron sailed 

8. A captious question sir and yours is one that deserves a cap- 
tious answer 

REVIEW. 

1. Define an independent expression. 2. Define an absolute phrase 
(see Lesson 24). 3. What is a parenthetical expression ? 4. What is 
pleonasm? 5. Write ten sentences, using in each a different kind of 
independent expression. 6. How are most independent expressions 
punctuated ? What other marks are sometimes used ? 7. When is 



ANALYSIS. 69 

the colon used? Illustrate. 8. When is the dash used? Illustrate. 
9. When are curves used? Illustrate. 10. How is the comma some- 
times used with the dash? Illustrate. 11. Why is like not a preposi- 
tion in the 7th sentence of the first list ? 



LESSON 31. 

Analyze the folloiving sentences : — 

1. Mr. Lincoln had vast concerns intrusted to him in the course 
of his life, and like a judge, always disposed of them, one at a time, 
in the order of their presentation. 

One is object complement of some participle, like talcing, understood; 
and the whole phrase, one at a time modifies Mr. Lincoln, as the subject 
of disposed, but not as the subject of was intrusted. To indicate this, the 
phrase and the first predicate are numbered in the diagram, as in Les- 
son 12. 

2. True politeness is to do and say the kindest thing in the 
kindest way. 

3. The son bred in sloth, becomes a spendthrift and a profligate, 
and goes out of the world a beggar. 

4. He, stooping down and looking in, saw the linen clothes lying. 

5. Nothing but ruins now remains to mark the ancient greatness 
of Egypt. 

6. The sun having risen, let us pursue our journey five miles 
farther. 

7. It took Rome three hundred years to die. 

8. The habits of study acquired at school are of the highest im- 
portance in after life. 

9. The morning light comes stealing round him in his dungeon, 
dim and late. 

light Adjectives modify nouns in two 

ways: directly and indirectly. 

In the sentence The lame boy limps, 
lame modifies the noun boy by limit- 
ing it and may be called a direct 
modifier. 

In the sentence The boy, lame in 
one foot, could hardly walk, "lame" 



!___ 


L 


1 morning 


! dim 


The 


and 




late ! 



70 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

modifies the noun boy, not by limiting, but by giving additional mean- 
ing. It may, therefore, be called an indirect modifier. The participle 
being should not be supplied in the latter construction, because it is not 
a part of the thought. 

The break in the dotted line of the diagram indicates the difference 
between the direct and the indirect modifier. 

10. What would you have me do? 

11. Having conquered the world, Alexander wept for more worlds 
to conquer. 

12. Having abandoned our vices, let us try to acquire virtue. 

What does having abandoned modify ? 

13. It does not pay to spend much time in parsing words. 

14. Still sits the school-house on the hill, a ragged beggar sun- 
ning. 

15. Liberty belonged to them as men. (See Lesson 15.) 



LESSON 32. 

Analyze the following sentences : — 

1. A hungry wolf, seeing a kid coming home one day, began to 
pipe a tune to attract the kid, but attracted the dogs instead. 

2. Now, there was not far from that place a castle called Doubt- 
ing Castle. 

3. Miss Abigail Bates, having recently died in Massachusetts at 
the age of 89, the nation is reminded of her heroic action during 
the War of 1812, in driving the British forces from one of the har- 
bors of that state. 

4. She and another young lady, having secreted themselves in 
some bushes, played the fife and drum vigorously, and made the 
enemy believe a large armed force to be at hand, ready to receive 
them. 

For construction of ready see preceding lesson, sentence No. 9. 

5. Europe was at war during the greater part of the fourteenth 
century. 

The phrase at war completes was, and denotes the condition of the sub- 
ject Europe; just as sick in the sentence John is sick, completes is, and 



ANALYSIS. 71 

denotes the condition of John. It is, therefore, a subjective complement. 
Use the pedestal in the diagram. 

6. Having been aroused early one morning by the smell of 
smoke, I found the house on fire. 

On fire is here used as objective complement. 

7. He might have secured friends by showing himself friendly. 

8. Having drawn his chair close to an open grate containing a 
recently-kindled fire, and the fire having grown too hot to bear, Sir 
Isaac Newton called his servant to remove the grate. 

9. To the servant's suggestion to remove his chair, the great 
philosopher muttered indistinctly something about not having 
thought of that. 

10. This news of papa's puts me all in a flutter. 

A DISCUSSION. 

Papas, in the foregoing sentence, represents both the possessor 
and the thing possessed, — the two conceived of as one object of 
thought. It is, therefore, an example of a possessive used as the 
principal term after a preposition. To supply a noun for such a 
possessive to modify, is not only contrary to thought, but is some- 
times impossible. We might conceive of the expression, This book 
of mine, expanded into This book of my books, but it would be ab- 
surd to conceive the same of This nose of mine. Some avoid the 
absurdity by supplying some word like owning or possessing ( This 
nose of my possessing), and by so doing get still farther from the 
real thought in the mind of the one who uses such an expression. 
In the thought, the preposition governs the possessive ; in our analy- 
sis of the sentence (which is the expression of the thought) it should 
be the same. 

In the sentence This book is mine, mine bears the same relation 
to is and to book that black does in the sentence The book is black; 
hence mine is a possessive used as subjective complement. 

Study the p>ossessives in the following sentences, and de- 
cide which, if any, modify nouns understood. Supply 
only when that which is supplied is a part of the thought. 
Notice that the use of the possessive is the same, whether 
the word be a noun or a pronoun: — 



72 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

1. Mine is black. 2. John's is black. 

3. That boat is mine. 4. That boat is John's. 

5. That boat of yours leaks. 6. That boat of Harry's leaks. 

7. He called the boat his. 8. I called the boat Walter's. 

9. Your boat and mine are different. 

Both descriptive and definitive adjectives sometimes represent the 
modifier and the thing modified conceived of as one object of 
thought ; as, The good people are always happy = The good are 
always happy; This hook is very interesting = This is very inter- 
esting. 

In the shortened forms of these two sentences, good is called a 
noun, and this a pronoun ; and no good authority even suggests that 
people should be supplied with the one, and book or some other 
noun with the other. 

Since it is admitted that descriptive and definitive adjectives 
stand for the thing modified as well as for the modifier, it is reason- 
able to construe possessives in the same way when they perform this 
double office. 

In the use of the possessive, the English language is very unlike 
other languages, and there is, therefore, no analogy to follow in dis- 
posing of it. Nearly all the inflected languages have what is called 
& possessive pronoun, which is derived from the genitive {possessive) 
form of the personal pronoun, and is declined in three genders and 
six cases. The noun which it modifies is rarely omitted, and when 
it is, the ending of the possessive and the context show clearly what 
it is. 

REVIEW. 

1. How are the italicized words in the following sentences used? 
(a) The driver was in a hurry. 
(6) The battle left the city in ruins. 

(c) The driver was in his seat. 

(d) The general left the city in the night. 

2. What two things does the possessive in the seventh sentence repre- 
sent? 3. To supply a noun for such a possessive to modify gives rise 
to what absurdity? 4. What offices in the sentence may the possessive 
occupy? Make sentences to illustrate them. 5. In what respect do 
possessives resemble certain uses of descriptive and definitive adjec- 
tives? Illustrate. 6. How does the English language differ from 
other languages in the use of the possessive? 



CLAUSES. 73 



LESSON 33. 

She was going to sink. I caught her. 

If she in the first of these sentences and her in the sec- 
ond, represent the same person, these two sentences are 
very closely related in thought. Such expressions are 
often so closely related that they are really parts of the 
same thought, and are then united in the same sentence by 
means of a conj unction, thus : She was going to sink, but 
I caught her. 

In Lesson 8, what name was given to two or more sim- 
ple sentences united by a conjunction into one? 

When only the predicates are united, we have what kind 
of predicate? When only the subjects, what kind of sub- 
ject? 

It should be remembered that when simple sentences 
have been united thus to form compound sentences, they 
are no longer sentences, but parts of sentences. They dif- 
fer from phrases and other parts of sentences in containing 
a subject and a predicate. 

Definition. — A part of a sentence containing" a 
subject and a predicate is called a clause. 

See Webster's Unabridged Dictionary. 

How many clauses has the following sentence ? What 
is the subject and predicate of each clause? 

Some men are horn great, some achieve greatness, and 
some have greatness thrust upon them. 

Here is a sentence which contains more than one 
clause : — 

Lincoln was a man that achieved greatness. 



74 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

If we write these clauses by themselves, the first makes 
complete sense, and becomes a simple sentence, — Lincoln 
was a man ; but the second, that achieved greatness, does 
not make sense by itself, and does not become a simple 
sentence ; therefore, these two clauses are not of the same 
kind. 

The first, which has all its meaning in itself, is called an 
independent clause (independent = not dependent), the 
second, which depends for its meaning on something out- 
side of itself, is called a dependent clause. 

Designate the independent and dependent clauses in the 
following sentences : — 

1. Moses smote the rock, and the water gushed forth. 

2. When * Moses smote the rock, he was angry. 

3. If wishes were horses, beggars might ride. 

4. Although the hand is a small member, many of its acts im- 
press us with profound admiration. 

5. Knowledge and timber should not be much used until they are 
seasoned. 

6. Grod bless the man who first invented sleep ! 

7. Ishmael was driven from home by Israel, but Ishmael's seed 
sold all Israel into bondage. 

8. Take plenty of exercise, or your body will grow weak. 

9. Have rents mended as soon as they are made. 

Definition. — A sentence that contains one inde- 
pendent clause, and one or more dependent clauses 
is called a complex sentence. 

Which four of the nine sentences above are complex ? 
Why? 

1 The connective of a dependent clause unites so closely in meaning 
with the clause itself as to form a part of it. To omit when from the 
clause When Moses smote the rock would change its meaning. To omit 
and in the first sentence would not affect the meaning of either clause 
much. 



CLA USES. 



75 



Make two simple sentences; unite them into one com- 
pound sentence ; change the compound sentence so as to 
form one that is complex. 



Simple. 
Compound. 



Model. 
The boy tried to ride the donkey. 
The donkey threw the boy off his back. 

The boy tried to ride the donkey, but 
the donkey threw him off his back. 

p i f When the boy tried to ride the donkey, 

I the donkey threw him off his back. 

Analyze the three compound sentences in the foregoing 
list of nine : — 



Moses 



water 



smote 



and 



gushed 



rock 



the 



In the diagram, the connection 
is made between the predicates, 
because the predicates are more 
important than the other members 
of a sentence. 



forth 



Analyze the following sentences : — 

1. She was going to sink, but I caught her. 

2. Some men are born great, some achieve greatness, and some 
have greatness thrust upon them. 

REVIEW. 
1. What is a compound sentence? 2. What is a clause? 3. What 
kind of clause is used in making compound sentences? 4. Into what 
may the clauses of a compound sentence be changed by omitting the 
conjunctions? 5. What is gained sometimes by uniting simple sen- 
tences into compound ones? 6. How many kinds of clauses are there? 
Name them. 7. How do they differ? 8. What is a complex sentence? 
9. Why is the connection between independent clauses shown in the 
diagram by connecting the predicates? 



76 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

LESSON 34. 
Analyze the following sentences : — 

1. Send men to Joppa, and call for Simon Peter. 

2. His comrade bent to lift him, but the spark of life had fled. 

3. Walk rapidly, or you will not overtake him. 

4. The boat foundered, and all the passengers perished. 

5. Wisdom is the principal thing ; therefore get wisdom. 
These independent clauses are so closely connected in thought that 

they do not need any conjunction to connect them. They are said to be 
connected by position. Therefore is an adverb, not a conjunction. 

6. The Victorian age of English literature has produced many 
great poets, but no one of them has been able to rival Shakespeare. 

7. A great store of oysters was instantly collected ; a fire was 
made at the foot of a tree ; all hands fell to roasting, and broiling, 
and frying ; and a sumptuous repast was soon set forth. 

8. The way was long, the wind was cold, 
The minstrel was infirm and old. 

9. I have just sent a letter to Rome, and the postage was only 
five cents. 

10. Fifty years ago, I received my first letter from Ohio, and the 
postage was twenty-five cents. 

11. Postage was charged according to distance then, and poor 
people could not afford to hear often from their friends. 

12. Man is Grod's image, but a poor man is Christ's stamp to boot. 

13. The curfew tolls the knell of parting day; 

The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea; 
The plowman homeward plods his weary way, 
And leaves the world to darkness and to me. 
This sentence has three clauses. 

14. Either he is talking, or he is pursuing, or he is in a journey, 
or peradventure, he slecpeth. 

Either helps connect, and in the diagram is placed beside the first con- 
junction or, and on the same line. 

15. Peace — who can deny it ? — is the true foundation of a nation's 
happiness. 

This is a compound sentence, because it contains two independent 
clauses. The one — who can deny it — is parenthetically independent, and 



PUNCTUATION OF COMPOUND SENTENCES. 77 

in the diagram stands like all other independent expressions, above the 
principal clause. See Lesson 21. 

16. I had grown to my desk, as it were, and the work had en- 
tered niy soul. 

LESSON 35. 

PUNCTUATION OF COMPOUND SENTENCES. 

Rule I. — Independent clauses connected by a conjunction 
are separated from each other by the comma ; but if one of 
them is itself divided into parts by the comma, they are 
separated by the semicolon. 

Ex. 1. — His father died, and he succeeded to the estate. 
Ex. 2. — A prudent man foreseeth the evil, and hideth himself ; 
but the simple pass on, and are punished. 

Rule II. — Independent clauses connected by position with- 
out a conjunction, are always separated by the semicolon. 

Ex. — Wisdom is the principal thing ; therefore get wisdom. 

Give reasons for all marks of punctuation found in the 
following sentences :— 

1 . The bones of her sons, falling in the great struggle for inde- 
pendence, now lie mingled with the soil of every State from New 
England to Georgia ; and there they will lie for ever. 

2. The long vista of departed years, like a landscape melting into 
distance, receives a thousand charms from its very obscurity ; and 
the fancy delights to fill up its outlines with graces and excellences 
of its own. 

3. There are in every community certain leading spirits ; their 
influence as well as their actions can be seen written on the face of 
every public institution. 

As well as is a conjunction. 

4. The present age has produced many great poets, but none of 
them have been Shakespeares. . 

5. Virtue is an angel ; but she is a blind one, and must ask of 
knowledge to show her the pathway leading to her goal. 



78 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

Punctuate the following sentences, writing 1 reasons for 
every mark inserted: — 

1. United we stand divided we fall 

2. His father being dead the prince succeeded to the throne but 
he made a bad king 

3. Men may come and men may go 
But I go on for ever 

4. Sickness is a sort of early old age it teaches us to distrust our 
earthly state and inspires us with the thoughts of a future 

5. I cannot dig to beg I am ashamed 

6. You cannot learn the art of punctuation in a day from a book 
or teacher it is a habit and can be acquired only by patient and con- 
stant practice 

7. Remember to punctuate carefully all the letters you write and 
you will find punctuation growing easier every day 

Give reasons for all the marks of punctuation found in 
Lesson SJ^. 

Why is the semicolon used after the word comma in 

Rule 1? 

REVIEW. 

1. When are independent clauses separated from each other by semi- 
colons? 2. When are independent clauses connected by position? 3. 
How must the art of punctuation be acquired ? 



LESSON 36. 
Analyze all the sentences in Lesson 35. 

1 To the Teacher.— Have the pupils write out reasons in their own 
words, not in the langua.ee of the rule. For example, do not have them 

write, "A comma should be placed after the word -, because (giving 

the rule)." But have them write something like this : " I placed a comma 

after the word , because the independent clauses (naming them) are 

connected by a conjunction expressed, and neither clause is itself sepa- 
rated into parts by the comma." 

This will not only insure a careful application of the rule, but will at 
the same time be an exercise in composition ; and in punctuation too, if 
the teacher will see that he punctuates properly what he writes. 



COMPOSITION. 79 

LESSON 37. 

WRITING A COMPOSITION. 1 

One's thoughts on any subject expressed in written 
language are called a composition. 

Nothing good enough to be called a composition can be 
written without first getting the thoughts of which to make 
it. These thoughts will not come to one when he sits 
down to write. They must be gotten beforehand, and 
must be as thoroughly known as we know anything. 

If a farmer's son were told to harness a horse, hitch him 
to a carriage, and drive to the village to get the mail, he 
would not first study all about the positions of the different 
straps that make up the harness, and just where and how 
each one was to be fastened to the horse, and how the horse 
was to be fastened to the carriage, and which line should 
be pulled to get the horse started toward the village ; but 
he would know all this to begin with. If he didn't, his 
father would not ask him to do such a thing. 

1 Note to the Teacher. — This lesson is intended to be a plan 
rather than a lesson. At first it may be necessary to use one recitation 
period in helping the pupils make their list of questions, and another 
in discussing the answers they have found for them. 

At first all should have the same subject ; after they grow more skill- 
ful in making lists of questions, each may take a different subject. 

Do not have beginners in composition make an outline, or " frame- 
work," as the books call it, but be satisfied with the logical arrange- 
ment made by the pupil's mind. If he is thoroughly imbued with the 
subject (and he ought not to be allowed to write till he is), the arrange- 
ment will not be bad ; and it will improve as his practice increases. 

Frameworks are valuable for more advanced pupils and more elab- 
orate themes ; but every teacher who has tried them with beginners, 
knows that they lead pupils to write with insufficient preparation, pro- 
duce a stiff and labored composition, and cause a distaste for the exer- 
cise. " 



80 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

Writing a composition is similar to this. The thoughts 
that are put into the composition, must be thoroughly un- 
derstood — known — first ; then writing the composition will 
be almost as easy as it would be for the boy to harness a 
horse when he knows exactly how it is done. 

The way to get ready to write a composition is to choose 
some subject about which we either know something or 
can learn something, and ask ourselves questions about 
it, to see what we already know and what we must find 
out. 

Suppose we want to write a composition about rivers. 
In order to find out what we already know about rivers, 
and what we need to learn, we would ask ourselves some 
such questions as these : — 

Rivers. 
What is a river? What names are given to streams smaller than 
rivers? Are there any streams larger than rivers? Did I ever see 
a river? If so, where? What proper name had it? Why was 
that name given to it? Do I know anything interesting about the 
names of other rivers ? What ? What is the largest river I ever 
heard of? Are rivers useful? How do they help mills and fac- 
tories do their work? How do they sometimes help in carrying on 
commerce? Do I know of any rivers that do this? If so, what 
branch of commerce do they promote ? How do rivers sometimes 
prevent floods? Of what use are they to vegetation in the coun- 
tries through which they flow? Is there anyone river that does 
more in this respect than the other rivers of the world? If so, what 
one? What does it do? How does it do it? How are rivers use- 
ful to people who live in great cities? Do rivers ever do damage? 
When? What damage do they do? How is the supply of water 
in rivers kept up? Where does the water that flows down a river 
go? If I were to get into a little boat on the river nearest my 
home, keep it in the middle of the stream, and meet with no acci- 
dent, where would it take me ? What accidents might happen to 
me on the way? Could I get on another river that would bring me 
back ? How does the water get back ? 



COMPOSITION. 81 

Now, it is very easy to ask all these questions, and 
almost as easy to answer them ; only it takes a longer 
time. The answers to many of them we already know. 
The answers to those we do not know may be obtained in 
several ways. 

1. If we talk with the other members of the class, we 
will find, no doubt, that we can answer some questions for 
them, and they can answer some for us. 

2. Our parents and friends may be able to answer some 
of them. 

3. The answers to many may be found in our books. 

4. Our teacher may help us by telling us to what per- 
sons, and to which books to go. 

After having learned the answers to all the questions, it 
is not hard to write a composition. This -should be done 
without looking at our questions or at any book or paper 
that contains the answers to any of them. If we have 
studied the subject till we know all about it, we can sit 
down and write our composition, just as we would sit down 
and tell any one about something we had seen. 

Choose one cf the following subjects, and write all the 
questions about it you can think of. Then find answers 
to them, and study the answers till you know them thor- 
oughly. Then write a composition on the subject : — 

Rain, icebergs, earthquakes, trees, leather, potatoes, sewing-ma- 
chines, the Eskimo, balloons, skating. 

Exchange papers, and criticise as in Lesson 31. 



For another lesson, find answers to some of the ques- 
tions about "Rivers;" and after studying the answers, 
write a composition on the subject. Exchange papers, 
and criticise as before. 



82 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



LESSON 38. 

DEPENDENT CLAUSES, — NOUN. 

/ believe that the earth is round. In this sentence, I 
believe is the independent clause ; that the earth is round 
is the dependent clause. 

Of the independent clause lis the subject and believe is 
the predicate. The predicate is incomplete, and takes for 
its complement the clause, that the earth is round. It is 
the object complement, because it names that which is 
believed. 

This clause performs the office of a noun, — names some- 
thing, and it is used as object complement, an office which 
nouns frequently fill. It may then be called a noun clause. 
This is the name of the first class of dependent clauses. 

Analyze the following sentences : — 

The noun clause is used in seven different ways. 

1. As subject. 

That the earth is round is not disputed. 

That 

earth 

is — round 



is disputed 



not 



2. As object complement. 

We believe that the earth is round. 

3. As subjective complement. 

My belief is that the earth is round. 



THE NOUN CLAUSE. 83 

4. After a preposition (expressed or understood). 

I am sure that the earth is round. 

that 



earth 
am — sure is — round 



5. As the assumed subject of an absolute phrase. 
That the earth is round having been proved, no one can deny it. 
That 



earth 



round 



the 



; having been proved 

6. In apposition. 

The belief, that the earth is round, was held by Columbus. 

7. In apposition with the indefinite subject "it." 1 
It is believed that the earth is round. 

Make seven sentences of your oivn about " the north 
pole," or something else; and let them contain the same 
noun clause, used in all the ivays indicated above. 

Analyze the sentences you have made. 

REVIEW. 
1. What name is given to the first class of dependent clauses? 2. 
Name the different uses of the noun clause. 3. What two reasons are 
given for calling noun clauses by that name? 4. What word gener- 
ally introduces the noun clause? 5. Keep on making sentences to 
illustrate the seven uses of the noun clause, till you can do it easily 
every time you try. 

1 The sixth and seventh uses of the noun clause are both appositives; 
but it is necessary to emphasize the fact, that when the noun clause is in 
apposition with the pronoun it, used as subject, the clause must stand at 
the end of the sentence. Hence, it seems best to consider this a separate 
use. 



84 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



LESSON 39. 

Analyze the following sentences: — 

1. The last words of John B. Gough were, " Young man, keep 
your record clean. ' ' 

2. How many members of this class know who John B. Gough 
was? 

3. Carlyle has wisely said that the greatest of faults is to be con- 
scious of having none. 

4. The theory, that Bacon was the real author of "Shake- 
speare's Plays," has few adherents. 

5. The wisest and best men are oftenest in doubt as to what they 
ought to do. 

As to is a preposition. The infinitive is object complement of ought. 

6. It being an established legal principle that women shall be 
taxed, some think they ought to be allowed to vote. 

7. It is a law of life that one should not tax his physical strength 
to its extreme limit. 

8. Matthew Arnold said, after returning to England from a 
visit to this country, that the American newspapers have bad 
manners. 

9. The truth is, that the ability to concentrate the attention upon 
any desired subject is generally the result of repeated effort. 

10. There is some dispute about who was the greatest of Amer- 
ican orators. 

11. Lawrence's command, "Don't give up the ship," kindles a 
spark of patriotism in the heart of every school-boy. 

12. That man is noble by birth being true, how much nobler do 
great deeds make him ! 

13. Many explorers have felt confident that they could reach the 
North Pole, but all their attempts have been futile. 

14. It is a question whether the information obtained or to be ob- 
tained, will ever pay for the expenditure of money and the sacrifice 
of human life, made in the attempts to penetrate the ice-bound 
regions of the North. 

15. We read in the Old Testament that Daniel was thrown into 
the lions' den, and that the lions did him no harm. 



PUNCTUATION OF NOUN CLAUSES. 85 

16. One of the grandest things in having rights is, that, being 
your rights, you may give them up. 

They understood, is assumed sub- 
ject of being. 

Up is an inseparable adverb, — an 
adverb that modifies a verb so closely 
may give up as t0 become a part of its meaning. 

I them (See Lesson 108.) 

In the diagram, it is placed on the 
same line with the verb from wliich 
it is separated by a vertical dotted 
line. 

17. It warms the very sickness in my heart, 

- That I shall live and tell him to his teeth, 
Thus did'st thou. 

18. It is surprising that nobody has yet been able to invent a 
satisfactory car-coupler. 



LESSON 40. 

PUNCTUATION OF NOUN CLAUSES. 

Rule. — (1) A passage copied from some author is called 
a direct quotation, and is enclosed in quotation marks (" ") ; 
but (2) when only the thought is copied, and is expressed 
in different words, it is an indirect quotation, and no marks 
are used. 

Ex. 1. — The world agrees with Shakespeare, who speaks of the 
man uninfluenced by music as being u Jit for treasons, stratagems, 
and spoils." 

Ex. 2. — Shakespeare says that a, man who cannot be influenced by 
music may be expected to plot treasons, engage in stratagems, and 
eagerly seek after spoils. 

Kemark. — 1. A quotation within a quotation is enclosed in single 
marks (' ') ; as, Von Hoist, in his life of Calhoun, aptly says, "Life is not 
only 'stranger than fiction,' but frequently, also, more tragical than any trag- 
edy ever conceived" 



86 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

2. A quotation within a second quotation takes the double mark 
again, but should be avoided when possible. 

3. A direct quotation making complete sense, should begin with a cap- 
ital letter. 

Comma Rule. — If a direct quotation is used as a noun 
clause, it is set off by the comma ; as, Shakespeare said, 
"The man who hath no music in himself ] is fit for trea- 
sons, stratagems, and spoils." 

Remark. — A direct quotation is preceded by a colon when it is for- 
mally introduced ; that is, when the words preceding the quotation are 
such as can be followed only by a direct quotation ; as, The words of 
Lawrence to his comrades were: "Don't give up the ship." 

It would be impossible, in the above sentence, to use the indirect quo- 
tation ; but we could use either the direct or the indirect by changing 
the introductory part; as, Lawrence said, "Don't give up the ship;" or, 
Lawrence said that they should not give up the ship. 

Comma Rule. — The noun clause used as subjective 
complement is always set off by the comma ; as, My belief 
is, that the earth revolves on its axis. 

Remark. — The noun clause in its other uses is seldom set off. 
When in apposition, it is set off, only when its connection with the 
word explained is very slight. 

Give reasons for punctuation of quotations and noun 
clauses in the following sentences, and for the use or omis- 
sion of capital letters with quotations :- — 

1. Antony's opening sentence was, "If you have tears, prepare 
to shed them now." 

2. I have been very brief in my version of the story, because I 
know full well that to be brief "is the soul of wit," 

3. Mr. Gladstone says that drink has produced evils more deadly 
to mankind than those caused by war, famine, and pestilence, com- 
bined. 

4. A portion of Plato's belief was, that the elements were peo- 
pled with spirits. 

5. Shakespeare's words concerning much talking are : "Talkers 
are no good doers." 



THE ADJECTIVE CLAUSE. 87 

6. The teacher's concluding words were : -* You must never allow 
yourselves to forget the motto, ' Order is Heaven's first law.' " 

Insert marks of punctuation in the following sentences 
where they are needed, and give reasons : — 

1. Addison says A man that is by no means big enough for the 
gazette may easily creep into the advertisements 

2. Froude said that mistakes were often the best teachers 

3. Horace advises young literary aspirants as follows Keep your 
literary compositions from the public eye for nine years at least 

4. Blessed be agriculture says Charles Dudley Warner if one does 
not have too much of it 

5. The father wrote to his son I am as much alone here in Lon- 
don as if I were the only dweller in a lodge in some vast wilderness 

6. Shakespeare says Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown but 
Holmes with his ever ready humor changes it to Uneasy lie the 
heads of all that rule and fittingly adds His worst of all whose 
kingdom is a school 

7. If you are sick do not ask What shall I take but What have 
I done 

8. If a person is sick, he should not ask what he shall take but 
what he has done 



LESSON 41. 

DEPENDENT CLAUSES, — ADJECTIVES. 

The ambitious boy will succeed. In this sentence, the 
adjective ambitious modifies boy. 

The boy who is ambitious, will succeed. In this sen- 
tence, the clause, who is ambitious, modifies boy, and gives 
to it the same meaning as that given by the single word 
ambitious in the first sentence. The word is an adjective 
modifier. So is the clause ; and for this reason, it is called 
an adjective clause. 

Adjective clauses are always dependent clauses. Do you 
know why ? (See Lesson o3.) 



88 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

Which of the following sentences contain adjective 
clauses f Point them out, state what they modify ; point 
out the subject and the predicate of each : — 

1. The boy who tried to ride the donkey, was thrown off his 
back. 

2. The boy tried to ride the donkey, but the donkey threw him 
off his back, 

3. The donkey, which is a quadruped, is a useful animal. 

4. I know the boy that tried to ride the donkey. 

5. The boy may drive the donkey T but he cannot ride him. 

6. Those who play with fire, must expect to be burned. 



For what does the word who stand in the sentence, The 
boy who is ambitious, will succeed f 

What part of speech/ is wh&? What is a pronoun? 
What is an antecedent ? (See Lesson 4.) What is the 
antecedent of this pronoun? 

The word who is called a relative pronoun, because it 
relates to the word boy for its meaning, and also joins the 
adjective clause, which it introduces, to the word boy, which 
the clause modifies. 

Definition. — A relative pronoun is one that intro- 
duces an adjective clause, and joins the clause to the 
word it modifies. 

Point out the relative pronouns and adjective clauses in 
the following sentences, and analyze each sentence : — 

1. The flowers which bloom in early spring are the most beauti- 
ful. 

flowers 



which 

bloom 



spring 

: early 



THE ADJECTIVE CLAUSE. 89 

2. The seed which was planted, has become a large tree. 

3. General Grant always did what l he promised to do. 



General Grant 

did 



he 



to , do , 

what 



promised 



The antecedent of the 
relative pronoun what is 
generally understood. 



4. A city that is set on a hill cannot be hid. 

5. There is nothing in the world but was made by God. 

But is here a relative pronoun. As a relative it is always a subject. 
It is called a negative relative, because wben some other relative pronoun 
is substituted for it, the negative adverb not must be given to the pred- 
icate to preserve the meaning of the clause. 

6. Gladstone is a man whom I call worthy of the name. 

7. Andrew Johnson was the President whose wife taught him to 
read and write. 

President 



wife 



taught 



whose 



8. As many as came went away satisfied. 

As after many is a relative pronoun, subject of came. The adjective 
clause modifies many. 

REVIEW. 

1. Why is the adjective clause so called? .2. Why is the adjective 
clause a dependent clause? 3. How many kinds of dependent clauses 

1 Some grammarians consider the clause introduced by what, object 
complement of did. Such a disposition of it makes it a noun clause ; 
and the word what could not then be a relative pronoun according to any 
definition that would define the other relative pronouns. 

If we study the thought expressed by such a clause, we will see that 
it does not name anything, but describes something so completely that it does 
not need to be named. 

Then, too, in such sentences as, What books I have, are good, the ante- 
cedent of what is expressed, and it is impossible to dispose of the clause 
it introduces, as a noun clause. 



90 



PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



have we studied ? 4. What is a relative pronoun ? 5. Name the rel- 
ative pronouns found in the last eight sentences of this lesson. 6. Use 
them in sentences of your own construction. 7. When but is used as a 
relative pronoun, what office does it always fill? 8. The word whose is 
what form of what word? 9. Give three objections to calling the 
clause introduced by what a noun clause. 10. In the diagram, with 
what word is an adjective clause connected? 11. To what word does 
the lower end of the connecting line extend ? 



times 



LESSON 42. 

Analyze the following sentences : — 

. 1. There are times when a man should be cautious as well as in- 
nocent. 

The connective of this 

adjective clause is the ad- 
verb when. It keeps its ad- 
verb nature and modifies 
should be; hence, the line 
on which it is written is 
connected to should be by a 
dotted line at the left-hand 
end, not in the middle. 

An adverb that has also 
the force of a connective is 
given the double name, con- 
junctive adverb. (See Les- 
son 109.) 

2. Have you ever visited the place where the battle of Gettys- 
burg was fought? 

3. Do you know the reason why no dew is formed on a cloudy 
night? 

4. God wrought a plan whereby all men may be redeemed. 

5. Whoever stops on his way to or from school to stone frogs or 
birds, or other harmless things, ought to be ashamed. 

The adjective clause modifies the understood subject of ought. 

6. Tell hiin to give you whichever you want. 





cautious 


should be — 


as well as 




innocent 



ANALYSTS— ADJECTIVE CLAUSE. 91 

7. Whatever conscience dictates to be done, do without question- 
ing. 

Whoever, whichever, and. whatever are called compound relative pronouns. 
They are the relatives who, which, and what compounded with ever, — 
sometimes with soever. (See Lesson 73.) 

8. Old Time, in whose bank w r e deposit our notes, 
Is a miser who always wants guineas for groats. 

9. Millions of tiny plants and animals, seen only by the aid of 
the most powerful microscope, float about in every glass of the 
purest water you drink. 

A relative pronoun, object complement of drink, is here understood. 

10. July is the time that farmers harvest their grain. 

The relative pronoun, that, is used as principal term of a preposition 
understood. 

1 1 . You have done that you should be sorry for. 

The use of that in this sentence was formerly common, but is now ob- 
solete. What is now used in such constructions. Supply the antecedent 
of that. 

12. He that filches from me my good name 
Robs me of that which not enriches him, 
And makes me poor indeed. 

13. He did not come, which I greatly regret. 

He 



1 did come 




; not 







The adjective clause here 
modifies the entire independ- 
ent I > ent clause. 
I which ! 

i 

greatly 



REVIEW. 
1. What is a conjunctive adverb? 2. How many conjunctive ad- 
verbs did you find in the sentences of this lesson ? 3. How many com- 
pound relative pronouns? 4. Of what are the compound relatives 
made? 5. Explain the peculiarity in the 11th sentence; in the 13th. 



92 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



LESSON 43. 

Analyze the following sentences : — 

1 . It was at York town that Cornwall! s surrendered to Washington. 
In this sentence the antecedent of the relative pronoun stands between 

the relative and its preposition. The usage of good authors makes this 
allowable; but in analysis, where the object is to find the true relation 
of the parts of a sentence, the logical order must be restored. Yorktown 
is subjective complement of was, and the preposition at governs the rel- 
ative that. 

2. It was from him that I obtained permission. 

The word him has been attracted into the wrong form by its position 
after the preposition. Use he instead of him in the diagram. 

3. How much a dunce that has been sent to roam, 
Excels a dunce that has been kept at home ! 

4. There's not a string attuned to mirth 
But has its chord in melancholy. 

5. His brow is wet with honest sweat, 

He earns whate'er he can. 

6. Tyndall is one of the greatest scientists the world has ever seen. 

7. The army of William the Conqueror did not land on the 
coast of Britain at the time that it was expected by the Saxons. 

8. Few and short were the prayers we said. 

9. Our greatest glory consists not in never falling, but in rising 
every time we fall. 

Supply a relative pronoun and its preposition. 

10. Whom the gods would destroy they first make mad. 

11. Irving says that the Indians believed that the Catskills were 
the abode of a band of spirits, ruled by an old squaw spirit, who 
was their mother. 

12. Sickness is a cannibal which eats up all the life and youth it 
can lay hold of and then devours its own sons and daughters. 

13. From yonder ivy-mantled tower, 

The moping owl does to the moon complain 
Of such as, wandering near her secret bower, 
Molest her ancient, solitary reign. 

14. There's not the smallest orb which thou behold'st, 
But in his motion like an angel sings. 



COMPOSITION— ADJECTIVE CLAUSE. 93 



LESSON 44. 

To the Teacher. — The following lessons in sentence-building and 
punctuation need careful attention ; for by these, the pupil is to be 
taught to incorporate into his own speech the constructions he has 
learned to analyze. Divide the lessons if they are too long, but do not 
leave them, until the pupils can illustrate easily and readily every con- 
struction asked for. Require sentences that mean something. Require as 
many of each kind as time will allow. 

1. Write sentences in which the following six relative 
pronouns shall be used: — 

Who, which, what, that, but, as. 

2. Write sentences whose adjective clauses shall be in- 
troduced by the following conjunctive adverbs : — 

Why, when, where, whereby, wherein. 

3. Write sentences whose adjective clauses shall be in- 
troduced by the following compound relative pronouns : — 

Whoever, whichever, whatever. 



LESSON 45. 

Comma Rule. — The adjective clause is set off by the 
comma, unless it restricts (narrows) the meaning of the word 
it modifies; as, 1. Water, which is composed of two gases, 
is a liquid. 2. Water which is stagnant is not healthful. 

In these two sentences, the same word water is modified 
by the adjective clause; but only in the second is the 
meaning of the word restricted. 

Note. — Sometimes the punctuation is the only means of showing 
whether the author of a sentence wishes the meaning of the noun mod- 
ified by the adjective clause to be narrowed or not; as, The teacher loves 
the pupil who is attentive, or The teacher loves the ptipil, who is attentive. In 
the first sentence, pupil is restricted to mean the attentive pupil ; in the 
second, the fact that he is attentive is given as an additional idea. 



94 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

Give reasons for the punctuation of the adjective clauses 
in the following sentences : — 

1. Fear not that which cannot be avoided. 

2. I, who speak to you, had a brother. 

3. Blessed is he who has found his work. 

4. Thomas Jefferson, who wrote the Declaration of Independence, 
was elected third President of the United States. 

Insert marks of punctuation in the following sentences, 
and give reasons : — 

1. The tomato which is now a common article of food was scarcely 
known a century ago 

2. The poor man that knows himjaughs loudest of all 

3. The fire-cracker and sky-rocket which play so important a part 
in the exhibitions of American patriotism are made by the Chinese 

4. The congregation was composed of the neighboring people of 
rank who sat in pews sumptuously lined and cushioned 

5. My worthy friend has put me under the care of his butler who 
is a very prudent man 

6. They that are accompanied with noble thoughts are never 
alone 

7. Kieft was alarmed by invaders, who had taken possession of 
the bank of the Schuylkill , and had built a fort there 

The Position of the Adjective Clause. 

The adjective clause should be placed where there can be 
no doubt as to what it is intended to modify. This usually 
requires it to follow immediately the word modified, but it 
may stand in any other position, if its position does not 
cause ambiguity or perverted meaning. 

Comma Rule. — An adjective clause out of its natural 
order is set off by the comma; as, Whom ye ignorantly 
worship, Him declare I unto you. 

In this sentence, the adjective clause is out of its nat- 
ural order, and its relation to the word modified is in no 
degree interfered with ; but in the sentence, The injured 



PUNCTUATION OF ABJECTIVE CLAUSES. 95 

man sent for a doctor, who had a leg to be amputated, 
the clause, who had a leg to be amputated, seems to modify 
doctor, but really modifies man. 

Criticise the position of the adjective clauses in the fol- 
lowing sentences ; correct, copy, and punctuate : — 

1. He wore a sword fastened to his belt, which was as sharp as a 
razor. 

2. Fish have been discovered in caves, which have no eyes. 

3. Every man ought to be thankful to Roger Bacon that uses 
spectacles, who invented them. 

4. Many persons occupy responsible positions who cannot write a 
letter correctly. 

5. Brutus loved Caesar, who slew him. 

When the clause is restored to its -proper order here, the pronoun him 
and its antecedent Csesar, must also change places. 

Comma Rule. 1 — When the logical subject (1) is long, 
(2) ends in a verb, or (3) consists of parts separated by 
commas, it is separated from its predicate by the comma ; as, 
He that runs, may read. 

Punctuate the following sentences according to the fore- 
going rule : — 

1. The evil that men do lives after them. 

2. He, who has the reputation of being an early riser,may sleep 
till noon. 

3. A period of inactivity, of sloth of degeneracy in the life of an 
individual as well as in the history of a nation ,is sure to be followed 
by calamitous events. 

4. Those Presbyterian members of the House of Commons ,who 
had many years before been expelled by the army; returned to their 
seats. 

5. An old man bent with years .but still bearing upon his counte- 
nance indications of a vigorous mind. then addressed the assembly. 

6. Whatever is^is right. 

1 Generally it is the presence of the adjective clause, which lengthens 
the logical subject, or causes it to end in a verb. 



96 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

LESSON 46. 

Make two sentences to illustrate each of the following 
constructions, and punctuate them properly : — 

1. An adjective clause modifying the subject of the independent 
clause. 

2. An adjective clause modifying the object complement. 

3. An adjective clause modifying a subjective complement. 

4. An adjective clause whose connective is a possessive modifier. 

5. An adjective clause whose connective is whom. 

6. An adjective clause whose connective is object complement, 
but is understood. 

7. An adjective clause which modifies some word understood. 

8. An adjective clause whose connective is understood, and is 
governed by a preposition. 

9. An adjective clause whose connective is expressed, but is gov- 
erned by a preposition understood. 

10. An adjective clause whose connective is separated from the 
preposition which governs it, by the word which the clause mod- 
ifies- 



LESSON 47. 

DEPENDENT CLAUSES, — ADVERB. 

Cwsar had a fever when he was in Spain. The clause, 
when he was in Spain, is a dependent clause, because 
if taken alone, it does not make sense, but depends for 
its meaning on the word had in the independent clause. 
It is a modifier of had, stating at what time Caesar had a 
fever ; it is, therefore, an adverb modifier. A dependent 
clause used as an adjective modifier was called, in Lesson 
40, an adjective clause; therefore, a dependent clause used 
as an adverb modifier may be called an adverb clause. 

Adverb clauses express (1) time, (2) place, (3) degree, 
(4) manner, (5) condition, (6) purpose, (7) concession, 
(8) cause, (9) reason. 



Caesar 






had 1 




: 




< 


he 1 


when 
was 



DEPENDENT CLAUSES— ADVERB. 97 

Analyze the following sentences, each of which contains 
an adverb clause : — 

1. Time. 

Caesar had a fever when he was in Spain. 

Not only does the adverb clause 
modify had; but the word when, which 
fever introduces the clause, also modifies 

j a had. If the learner has difficulty in 

J seeing this, let him use the word 

when without its clause, with the in- 
dependent part; as, Ccesar had a fever 
in - Spain when. He will readily see that when 
modifies had in this short expression, 
and that it has the same modifying force in the longer complex one, 
the adverb clause serving only to extend, not to destroy, this force. 

In the same way, he may see how when modifies was, the predicate of 
the dependent clause. 

In the diagram, the lines between which when is written are con- 
nected by a dotted line to each of the words when modifies. This dot- 
ted line is placed at the left-hand extremity of the lines. When the 
conjunctive adverb modifies only one verb, the dotted line is drawn 
from the other to the middle of the line, as with pure conjunctions. 

2. Place. 

Fools rush in where angels fear to tread. 

Where is a conjunctive adverb. As an adverb it modifies both rush 
and fear. 

3. Degree. 

Wild geese sometimes fly so high that they can hardly be seen. 
That is a pure conjunction. The adverb clause modifies so. 



flv 



high 



I In constructions like this the adverb 

' so , , . 

' i so helps the conjunction to connect, — 

! seems to do part of the connecting, and 

tnat for this reason the two words are said to 

t j iev I j be correlative. (See Lesson 114.) 



can be seen 



hardlv 



98 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

4. Manner. 

He does as he likes. 
As is a conjunctive adverb, modifying does and likes. 

5. Condition. 

If I were not Alexander, I would be Diogenes. 
If is a pure conjunction. 

6. Purpose. 

Hear me for my cause, and be silent that you may hear. 
That is a pure conjunction. 

7. Concession. 

Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him. 
Though is a pure conjunction. For the diagram of though and yet, see 
so and that in the third sentence. 

8. Cause. 

I hid myself, because I teas afraid. 

9. Reason. 

He was afraid, for he hid, himself 
Because in the eighth, and for in the ninth sentence, are pure con- 
junctions. 

It is sometimes difficult for pupils to distinguish between 
adverb clauses of cause and those of reason. What is 
stated in a cause clause is always the real cause of the 
statement made in the independent clause. In the eighth 
sentence, his being afraid (the statement made in the ad- 
verb clause) caused the hiding. In the ninth sentence, 
his hiding himself (which is also the statement made in the 
adverb clause) did not cause the fear, but is the reason for 
our knowing about it. 

In the following sentences there is one adverb clause of 
each Jcind. Select, name, and analyze them : — 

1 . As the hart panteth after the water-brooks, so panteth my soul 
after thee, O God. 



DEPENDENT CLAUSES— ADVERB. 99 

2. Take heed lest you fall. 

3. He was tired and hungry, as he had been plowing all day. 

4. If I had plowed all day, I should be tired and hungry too. 

5. As Paul passed by, he saw an altar having a strange inscription. 

6. He must have been very tired, as he stopped frequently to rest. 

7. Although he had plowed all day, he did not seem very tired. 

8. He is not so tall as I am. 
After am, the word tall is understood. 

9. I live where I was born. 

REVIEW. 

1. Why is an adverb clause so called? 2. Why is the adverb clause 

a dependent clause? 3. How many kinds of dependent clauses have 

you studied ? 4. How many kinds of adverb clauses are there ? 5. 

Name them. 6. What two kinds of words introduce adverb clauses ? 

7. How may we determine whether a connective has any adverb force? 

8. In the last nine sentences, as introduces what kinds of adverb 
clauses? 9. Lest introduces what kind of clause, in the second sen- 
tence ? 



LESSON 48. 

Analyze the following sentences, and note the kinds of 
adverb clauses they contain : — 

1. Praise is often given that it may be returned. 

2. Should the President declare war, the militia in the various 
States would be called out at once. 

The adverb clause in this sentence, has no connective. Its nature is 
shown by the meaning, and by the position of should, a part of the verb. 
In the diagram, draw the connecting lines, but do not place anything 
where the connective belongs. 

3. 'Twere easy for you to laugh, and leap, and say you are merry, 
because you are not sad. 

4. Although the brave General Putnam served his country more 
than a hundred years ago, no monument was erected to his memory 
until recently. 

More than, taken as a single modifier, modifies a hundred. Years mod- 
ifies ago. 



100 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

5. The mountains were so high as to reach the clouds. 

The infinitive phrase, to reach the clouds, is the subject of an adverb 
clause whose predicate is understood. Supply would require. 

6. Wherever the carcass is, there will the eagles be gathered 
together. 

7. Wisdom is better than rubies. 

8. You shall digest the venom of your spleen, though it do split 
you. 

9. A hero of fiction, that never existed is just as valuable to me 
as a hero of history, that existed a thousand years since. 

10. Look before you leap. 

11. If you are sick, do not ask, "What shall I take?" but, 
"What have I done?" 

12. It looks as if it would rain. 

13. When Freedom from her mountain height, 

Unfurled her banner to the air, 
She tore the azure robe of night, 
And set the stars of glory there. 

14. What is so rare as a day in June ! 
The word rare here means unusually excellent. 

15. The cow-bird is so called, because it walks about amid the 
grazing cattle, and seizes the insects which their heavy tread sets 
going. 

16. Whither thou goest, I will go; and where thou lodgest, I 
will lodge. 

17. Just as the twig is bent the tree's inclined. 

The adverb just here modifies the conjunction as. (See Lesson 7.) 

1 8. The oriole builds for its nest a kind of deep pouch, so that 
other birds cannot disturb its young. 

How does so that in this sentence differ from the same words in the 
third sentence ? 

19. I never go there that he does not invite me to dine with 
him. 

20. Though round its breast the rolling clouds are spread, 
Eternal sunshine settles on its head. 



CONNECTIVES OF DEPENDENT CLAUSES. 101 



LESSON 49. 

Connectives which generally introduce adverb clauses, 
sometimes introduce other kinds of clauses ; and the same 
connective may introduce adverb clauses of different kinds. 

Name the kinds of dependent clauses in the following 

sentences : — 

1 . I carry an umbrella when it rains. 

2. Spring is the season when the farmer sows his seed. 

3. He has not decided when he will go abroad. 

4. When you know better, why do you do so ? 

5. I arose to leave the room, when he placed his back against 
the door, and forbade my departure. 

6. Haverhill is the place where Whittier was born. 

7. Do you know where Whittier lives? 

8. Have you ever been where Whittier lives? 

9. While I read, you may write. 

10. While I study hard, I seldom know my lesson. 

11. I am a shoemaker, while you are a saddler. 

12. You should do as I do. 

13. You should behave, as that is manly. 

14. I saw you as I came up the lane. 

15. I will retire, as I am sleepy. 

1 6. He must have been sleepy, as he retired early. 

17. He has the same kind as you have. 

18. If 1 you are intemperate in eating, you will receive punish- 
ment. 

19. If Andre was a spy, he was a polished gentleman. 

20. Since it rains, we will not go. 

1 If is often used in the sense of whether to introduce a noun clause ; 
as, I doubt if he will come to-day. This usage should not be encouraged. 
To use tvhether makes such sentences clearer and more forcible. 

Some think if in the following construction introduces an adverb 
clause of time : "If a slave breathes our air, that moment he is free." The 
idea of time, however, is entirely destroyed, if we remove the adverbial 
noun moment. This idea, therefore, is not found in the clause, but in the 
noun moment. 



102 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

21 . It has been two weeks, since we had rain. 

22. It must have rained, since the ground is wet. 

23. I believe that it will rain to-day. 

24. Make your sentences so clear that they must be understood. 

25. He never comes this way that he does not stop to see me. 

26. We study that we may become wise and useful. 

27. Pupils that are diligent recite well. 

28. Take heed lest you fall. 

29. The hen fears lest the hawk may seize her young. 

30. There is no vice so simple, but assumes some mark of virtue 
on its outward parts. 

31. He went fishing, but he caught nothing. 

32. He never came home but he brought me a toy. 

But in this sentence is used like that (and the accompanying negative 
not) in the 25th. 

Substitute some other word for each italicized connective 
in the foregoing sentences. 

REVIEW. 
1. What kinds of adverb clauses may when introduce? 2. What 
other kinds of clauses may when introduce ? 3. What kinds of adverb 
clauses may where introduce? 4. What other kinds of clauses may 
where introduce? 5. What kinds of adverb clauses may while intro- 
duce? 6. How is while used in the eleventh sentence ? 7. What kinds 
of adverb clauses may as introduce? 8. What other kinds of clauses 
may as introduce ? 9. What kinds of adverb clauses may if, since, and 
lest introduce? 10. What kinds of adverb clauses may that introduce? 
11. What other kinds of clauses may that introduce? 12. Name the 
kinds of clauses introduced by but. 



LESSON 50. 

Point out and name the adverb clauses in the following 
sentences, and analyze the sentences : — 

1. Let great authors have their due, that Time, who is the author 
of authors, be not deprived of his due, which is further and further 
to discover truth. 



DEPENDENT CLAUSES— ADVERB, 103 

2. The bark of a dog when he encounters a snake, is different 
from that which he gives out on an}' other occasion. 

3. If the negro is the image of Grod in ebony, the task-master 
is the image of the Devil, cut in ivory. 

4. The aphides, or plant lice, have been called the milch-cows 
of the ants, because the ants stroke them with their antennae to 
make them yield up a rich saccharine substance, abstracted from 
plants. 

5. The cuttle-fish is provided with an ink-bag, that it may con- 
ceal itself in inky water when it is pursued by its enemies. 

6. The pigment in the ink-bag of the cuttle-fish is so black and 
so indelible that Indian ink was formerly made from it. 

7. When we are selecting the pursuits of our lives, let us try to 
select them in such a way that a free and full exercise of our bodily 
and mental powers will be provided for. 

The last clause modifies the entire phrase, in sack a way. 

8. The curfew bell is still rung in many parts of England and 
America, although it was introduced into England by William the 
Conqueror more than eight hundred years ago. 

9. Amber must be a very valuable substance, for the Czar of 
Russia has a tea set cut from blocks of it, which is said to be worth 
treble its weight in gold. 

10. If you wish the birds to breed and thrive in your orchards 
and groves, kill every red squirrel that infests the place. 

11. When a man has not a good reason for doing a thing, he has 
at least one good reason for letting it alone. 

12. I never hear his name mentioned, but I am reminded of his 
ludicrous position. 

13. The longer I know him, the better I like him. 



I 



like 



better 



him 



th( 



"j him 
longer 



The 



14. If all the years were holidays, 

To sport would be as tedious as to work. 



104 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



LESSON 51. 

Comma Rule. — The adverb clause is always set off 
by the comma, unless (1) it is an essential modifier, and (2) 
follows closely the word modified ; as, We carry umbrellas 
when it rains. 

(1) The adverb clause, when it rains y te here a necessary modifier. 
We carry umbrellas is true only when said of a certain time; therefore, 
to make the meaning complete, when it rains is necessary. 

(2) If, however, the adverb clause, instead of following, be placed 
first, — WJien it rains, we carry wmbreUas, — the comma is used. 

Give reasons for the punctuation of the adverb clauses 
in the following sentences :-— 

1. A book's a book, although there's nothing in it. 

2. While craving justice for ourselves, it is never wise to be un- 
just to others. 

3. If we did not flatter ourselves, the flatteries of others could do 
us no harm. 

4. The flatteries of others could do us no harm if we did not flat- 
ter ourselves. 

5. My chief companion, when Sir Koger is diverting himself in 
the woods or the fields, is the chaplain. 

6. A cavern is larger than a cave. 

Insert marks of punctuation where they are needed in 
the following sentences : — 

1 . It is the practice of the multitude to bark at eminent men as 
little dogs do at strangers 

2. Sometimes we may learn more from a man's errors than from 
his virtues 

3. Gold is green in color when it is thin enough to be transparent 

4. If a good face is a letter of recommendation a good heart is a 
letter of credit 

5. Never eat till you are hungry 

6. Friendship is infinitely better than kindness 



DEPENDENT CLAUSES— ADVERB. 105 

7. If the world does not admire you and me it is because it sees 
nothing in us to admire 

8. Sleep riches and health are only truly enjoyed after they have 
been interrupted 

9. Though Charles Sumner was a diligent student in college he 
gave more attention to general literature than to the special studies 
of his course 

10. When we have done with our life-lasting toys 

Dear Father take care of thy children the boys 



LESSON 52. 

Make sentences containing adverb clauses, using the fol- 
lowing words as connectives ; punctuate them carefully : — 

When; while; before; since; as; where; wherever; as — as; the — 
the; than; so — that; so — as; because; for; but; if; unless; that; in 
order that; so that; although; though; lest; as if ; whither. 

See into how many and what positions you can place the 
adverb clauses in the sentences you have made, and note 
which position best suits the thought expressed. 

Make sentences containing the following constructions : — - 

As used to introduce adverb clauses of manner, cause, reason, 
and time. 

Since used to introduce adverb clauses of time, cause, and 
reason. 

That used to introduce adverb clauses of degree, time, and 
purpose. 

While used to introduce adverb clauses of time and con- 
cession. 

When used to introduce adverb clauses of time and cause. 

Where used to introduce an adverb clause of place. 

Lest used to introduce an adverb clause of purpose. 

But used to introduce an adverb clause of time. 



106 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

Miscellaneous Extracts for Analysis. 

In the following extracts, the teacher will find material for 
additional lessons in analysis, and for examination tests : — 

1. A man has no more right to say an uncivil thing than to act 
one : no more right to say a rude thing to another than to knock 
him down. — Dr. Johnson. 

2. Read not to contradict and confute, nor to believe and take 
for granted, nor to find talk and discourse, but to weigh and con- 
sider. — Francis Bacon : Of Studies. 

3. But words are things ; and a small drop of ink, 
Falling like dew upon a thought, produces 

That which makes thousands, perhaps millions, think. — Lord 
Byron. 

4. There is in every woman's heart a spark of heavenly fire, 
which lies dormant in the broad daylight of prosperity, but which 
kindles up, and beams, and blazes in the dark hour of adversity; — 
W. Irving. 

5. Full many a gem of purest ray serene 

The dark unfathomed caves of ocean bear ; 
Full many a flower is born to blush unseen, 
And waste its sweetness on the desert air. — Thomas Gray : 
Elegy. 

6. So far as happiness goes, I would rather be a healthy, re- 
spected poor man than the richest man in the world, whose name is 
only another for gold.— H. W. Beecher: On Riches. 

7. I think 
The nightingale, if she should sing by day, 
When every goose is cackling, would be thought 

No better a musician than the wren. — Shakespeare : Mer- 
chant of Venice. 

8. A man should never be ashamed to own he has been in the 
wrong, which is but saying, in other words, that he is wiser to-day 
than he was yesterday. — Alexander Pope. 

9. The real security of Christianity is to be found in its benev- 
olent morality, in its exquisite adaptation to the human heart, in 
the facility with which its scheme accommodates itself to the capa- 
city of every human intellect, in the consolation which it bears to the 



EXTRACTS FOB ANALYSIS. 107 

house of mourning, in the light with which it brightens the great 
mystery of the grave. — T. B. Macaulay. 

10. Oh, what a glory doth this world put on 

For him who, with a fervent heart, goes forth 
Under the bright and glorious sky, and looks 
On duties well performed, and days well spent ! 
For him the wind, ay ! and the yellow leaves, 
Shall have a voice, and give him eloquent teachings. 
He shall so hear the solemn hymn that Death 
Has lifted up for all, that he shall go 
To his last resting-place without a tear. — H. W. Longfel- 
low: Autumn. 

11. I can pardon a man who wishes to make a collection of eggs 
and birds for his own private use, if he will content himself with 
one or two specimens of a kind, though he will find any collection 
much less satisfactory and less valuable than he imagines ; but the 
professional nest-robber and skin-collector should be put down, 
either by legislation or with dogs and shot-guns. — John Bur- 
roughs : Signs and Seasons. 

] 2. The sparkling waters swarmed with boats, some of which had 
taken a big ship by the hand and were leading her out to sea, as 
the prattle of childhood often guides wisdom into the deepest and 
broadest thoughts.— Lydia M. Childs : A Street Scene. 

13. Beading without purpose is sauntering, not exercise. More 
is got from one book on which the thought settles for a definite end 
in knowledge, than from libraries skimmed over by a wandering eye. 
A cottage flower gives honey to the bee, — a king's garden none to 
the butterfly. — Bulwer Lytton. 

14. This was the noblest Boman of them all : 
All the conspirators, save only he, 

Did that they did in envy of great Caesar ; 
He only, in a general-honest thought 
And common good to all, made one of them. 
His life was gentle, and the elements 
So mix'd in him that Nature might stand up 
And say to all the world, "This was a man!" — Shake- 
speare: Julius Ccesar. 

15. Accordingly, no sooner does a great man depart, and leave 



108 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

his character as public property, than a crowd of little men rushes 
toward it. There they are, gathered together, blinking up to it with 
such vision as they have, scanning it from afar, hovering around it 
this way and that, each cunningly endeavoring, by all arts, to catch 
some reflex of it in the little mirror of himself. — Thos. Carlyle: 
Jean Paul Richter. 

16. I sometimes hold it half a sin 

To put in words the grief I feel ; 
For words, like Nature, half reveal 
And half conceal the soul within. — Tennyson : In Memoriam. 

17. I am always very well pleased with a country Sunday, and think, 
if keeping holy the seventh day were only a human institution, it 
would be the best method that could have been thought of, for the 
polishing and civilizing of mankind. — Jos. Addison : The Spectator. 

18. Breathes there the man with soul so dead, 
Who never to himself hath said, 

This is my own, my native land ? 
Whose heart hath ne'er within him burned, 
As home his footsteps he hath turned 

From wandering on a foreign strand? 
If such there breathe, go, mark him well ; 
For him no minstrel raptures swell ; 
High though his titles, proud his name, 
Boundless his wealth as wish can claim ; 
Despite those titles, power, and pelf, 
The wretch, concentred all in self, 
Living, shall forfeit fair renown, 
And, doubly dying, shall go down 
To the vile dust from whence he sprung, 
Unwept, unhonored, and unsung. — Walter Scott: The 
Lay of the Last Minstrel. 

19. A taste for reading will always take us into the best possible 
company, and enable us to converse with men who will instruct us 
by their wisdom, and charm us by their wit; who will soothe us 
when fretted, refresh us when weary, counsel us when perplexed, 
and sympathize with us at all times. — Geo. S. Hillard. 

20. How beautiful this night ! The balmiest sigh 
Which vernal zephyrs breathe in Evening's ear, 



EXTRACTS FOB ANALYSIS. 109 

Were discord to the speaking quietude 

That wraps this moveless scene. Heaven's ebon vault, 

Studded with stars unutterably bright, 

Through which the moon's unclouded grandeur rolls, 

Seems like a canopy which Love hath spread 

To curtain her sleeping world. — Shelley : Queen Mab. 

21. Whether we look, or whether we listen ; 

We hear life murmur or see it glisten. — J. Russell Lowell : 
Vision of Sir Launfal. 

22. When Alexander asked Diogenes whether there was anything 
he could serve him in, the philosopher replied, " Only stand a little 
out of my sunshine;" whereupon the king, struck with surprise at 
finding himself so little regarded, and seeing something so grand in 
him whom his courtiers were ridiculing as a monster of impudence, 
said, "If I were not Alexander, I should wish to be Diogenes. ' ' 

23. Haste thee, Nymph, and bring with thee 
Jest, and youthful Jollity, 

Quips, and Cranks, and wanton Wiles, 

Nods, and Becks, and wreathed Smiles, 

Such as hang on Hebe's cheek, 

And love to live in dimple sleek ; 

Sport that wrinkled Care derides, 

And Laughter holding both his sides. 

Come, and trip it as 3^ou go, 

On the light fantastic toe ; 

And in thy right hand lead with thee 

The mountain-nymph, sweet Libert}^. — Milton: U Allegro. 

24. If one should give me a dish of sand, and tell me there were 
particles of iron in it, I might look for them with my eyes, and 
search for them with my clumsy fingers, and be unable to detect 
them ; but let me take a magnet and sweep through it, and how 
would it draw to itself the almost invisible particles by the mere 
power of attraction ! The unthankful heart, like my finger in the 
sand, discovers no mercies ; but let the thankful heart sweep through 
the day, and. as the magnet finds the iron, so it will find in every 
hour some heavenly blessings, — only the iron in God's sand is gold, 
—0. W. Holmes. 



110 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

25. Let not Ambition mock their useful toil, 

Their homely joys, and destiny obscure ; 
Nor Grandeur hear with a disdainful smile 
The short and simple annals of the poor. 

The boast of heraldry, the pomp of power, 
And all that beauty, all that wealth e'er gave, 

Awaits alike the inevitable hour: — 
The paths of glory lead but to the grave. — Thos. Gray: 
Elegy. 

26. A rich man, having purchased a pair of new shoes, advertised 
for a man having feet exactly the size of his own, to wear his shoes 
long enough to stretch them enough to enable him to put them on 
and wear them without feeling any discomfort. 

27. That fairy music I never hear, 

Nor gaze on those waters so green and clear, 
And mark them winding away from sight, 
Darkened with shade or flashing with light, 
While o'er them the vine to its thicket clings, 
And the zephyr stoops to freshen his wings, 
But I wish that fate had left me free 
To wander these quiet haunts with thee, 
Till the eating cares of earth should depart, 
And the peace of the scene pass into my heart ; 
And I envy thy stream, as it glides along, 
Through its beautiful banks, in a trance of song. — Wm. Cul- 
len Bryant : Green River. 

28. Miss Blank loves to sit up late, either reading or being read 
to, but she ought to remember that, whether we realize it or not, 
every hour stolen from exercise or sleep shortens our lives propor- 
tionately. 

29. Oh, make Thou us through centuries long, 
In peace secure, in justice strong ; 
Around our gifts of freedom draw 

The safeguards of thy righteous law ; 
And, cast in some diviner mould, 

Let the new cycle shame the old. — John G. Whittier: 
Centennial Hymn. 



LETTER- WRITING. Ill 

LESSON 53. 

LETTER- WRITING. 
INTRODUCTION. 

Writing letters is so much a part of our every-day life, 
and is looked upon as such an easy thing to do, that in- 
struction in this branch of composition is seldom given ; 
and yet a glance at the annual report of the Dead Letter 
Office ought to convince any one that instruction in this art 
is very important. 

More than fifteen thousand letters and packages reach 
the Dead Letter Office daily. Some of these contain coin, 
bank-notes, checks, drafts, money orders, etc., the value 
of which amounts to almost eight million dollars a year. 
Many of these letters and their contents cannot be returned 
to the sender, because the name of the sender, or his ad- 
dress (sometimes both), is not found within. 

Most letters deficient in these respects bear evidence 
of having been written by poor people ; and there is no 
doubt that the twenty or thirty thousand dollars in cash 
that is every year deposited in the LTnited States Treasury 
as the revenue of the Dead Letter Office is the money of 
those who can least afford to lose it. 

Many of these people have spent enough time at school 
to have learned sufficient of the art of letter-writing to 
make the use of the mails an advantage instead of a hin- 
drance to them ; but it is a lamentable fact that, with but 
few exceptions, teachers and school officers do not realize 
the importance of the matter, and consequently do little 
toward giving practical instruction on this subject. 

Every letter, properly written, has four parts, not count- 
ing the address on the envelope. 



112 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

THE PARTS OF A LETTER. 

1. The Heading is begun on the first ruled line at the upper 
right-hand corner of the first page, and consists (1) of the full post- 
office address of the writer, followed (2) by the date of writing. It 
may occupy a part of one, two, or three lines, each beginning a little 
farther to the right than the preceding. 

The post-office address of one living in a village or couutry place 
includes the name of the post-office, the county, and the State ; that of 
one living in a town or city where letters are delivered by carriers, has 
the number of the door and the name of the street instead of the county, 
and for this may be substituted the name of a hotel or other well-known 
institution. The name of the county may be omitted in the case of 
boroughs and in towns of equal size and importance. 

A comma should follow each item of the heading, except the last, 
which should be followed by a period. 

Models. 

(0- 

(2). 
(3). 

■36 (§. G/fhai'vi &/ y 

o-'l4'Ul£o'Li£-<n y Cs-cf-., 

tz'n, 3 y Jggy. 



LETTER-WRITING. 113 

2. The Introduction is placed, in a formal or business letter, 
on the next line after the heading, and consists of (I) the name 
and post-office address of the person to whom the letter is written, 
together with (2) the salutation, or words of greeting, with which 
the message begins. 

In a letter to a friend or relative only the salutation is placed at the 
beginning; while the name and address is placed at the end of the 
letter, on the left-hand side of the page, on the next line after the sig- 
nature of the writer. (See Model, page 116.) The address in the in- 
troduction need not include the name of the county or the number and 
name of the street ; but the name of the person, post-office, and State 
should never be omitted, for besides the element of completeness which 
they add, they are often of legal yalue. For the punctuation of the 
introduction, see Model. The words of the salutation differ with the 
degree of intimacy which exists between the writer and the one ad- 
dressed. A stranger, if a lady, whether old or young, married or sin- 
gle, may properly receive the salutation, Madam, Dear Madam, or 
Respected Friend, while Dear Sir, Esteemed Sir, and the like is the 
appropriate salutation for a stranger, if a gentleman. 

ModeL 



CsZ//<£€Z'?t<£-£C Sg^-k^W, CyttUttZ, 



EXERCISES. 
1. Write the heading and introduction of a business 
letter written to you at your home, from D. Landreth $ 
Sons, whose place of business is in Philadelphia, at 21 
South 6th Street. 



114 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

2. Write the heading and introduction of a letter to a 
minister of the gospel by the name of F. V. Frisbie, who 
resides at Bellport, a town on Long Island. 

3. Write the heading and introduction of a letter writ- 
ten to your father from some boarding-school which you 
may suppose yourself to be attending. 

4. Write the heading and introduction of a letter from 
some friend who writes from his home in the country, after 
having visited you, who are supposed to be living in the 
city. 

5. Write the heading and introduction of a letter to a 
doctor of medicine by the name of S. F. Ashcraft, whose 
home is in the State of New Jersey, at a place called Mul- 
lica Hill, Gloucester Co. 



LESSON 54. 

The Message should begin on the next line after the salu- 
tation, a little farther to the right. Its nature differs with the 
occasion for writing. 

Business letters should be short, but not so short as to omit any- 
thing that will facilitate the business. A letter ordering goods should 
be very explicit in regard to the kind, quality, quantity, and if possible 
the price of the goods. A letter inquiring for missing or delayed goods 
should contain a full description of the order, as well as mention the 
time of ordering, and should state also whether money was enclosed, 
and how much. Many persons improperly write about their health, 
their family, their neighborhood, or their own affairs, when these have 
nothing to do with the business. 

A letter of APPLICATION should not simply beg for a position, 
neither should it be boastful of what the writer is, and can do; but it 
should state modestly what qualifications he believes himself to have. 
Copies of testimonials, if the applicant has or can get any, should 
accompany an application. 



LETTER-WRITING. 115 

In letters of FRIENDSHIP, a variety of subjects, including matters 
of business, may be considered. Statements about private matters and 
reckless nonsense are often the cause of trouble and shame, because they 
are seen by persons for whom they were not intended. If one should 
think twice before he speaks, he should think twenty times before he 
writes. 

The Conclusion consists (1) of the complimentary close of 
the letter and (2) the signature. 

The close, a phrase such as "Yours with respect," "Cordially yours," and 
the like, used to assure the one addressed, of the respect or kindly feel- 
ing of the writer, is placed on the next line after the end of the mes- 
sage, beginning about the middle of the line. The first word begins 
with a capital letter, and a comma is placed at the end of the 
phrase. 

The signature, — the full name of the writer,— should be placed on 
the next line after the complimentary close, beginning a little farther 
to the right. This should be written in a 'plain hand, so that every letter 
in it may be easily recognized. 

In the message, if a word is not plainly written, what follows and 
precedes will help in deciphering; but this is not true of the signa- 
ture. If a's are made like o's, e's like t's, %'s like w's, and so on, the 
name may be entirely misunderstood. Serious inconvenience and em- 
barrassment are frequently caused by illegible signatures. 

No one should sign simply his first name to a letter. When such 
letters go astray, and reach the Dead Letter Office, they are destroyed. 
The clerk in the Dead Letter Office doesn't know who " Uncle John," 
"Cousin Jane," and " Alice" are, even if their post-office address is 
given. 

A gentleman may use his initials in signing his name. An unmar- 
ried lady should sign her first name in full. Married ladies whose 
husbands are living, sign their husband's name, placing the title Mrs. 
before it. Widows use their own first name, the same as unmarried 
ladies, but place the title Mrs. before it. A failure to observe these 
restrictions often causes ladies to be addressed as gentlemen, and inter- 
feres with the safe and prompt delivery of their mail. 



116 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

Model of Conclusion. 






■ee4/i,v<vi, Ls-ez. 



Model for Business Letter. 



fe<ad-e dew*/ ^ne-^ -uy. ^-A-e Cs&chw'nd (Q-zfededd 



&.. -a^n^e -ap ^Zf-c-z.-a^i d Cz-e^ic^-t. \z/*nad?i-e'n,-edd . 



( Q>i.''Ur.d &$. J2?<zd</<n.&d. 



LETTER- WRITING. 117 

The Envelope should contain the name and full post-office 
address, including county and state, of the person to whom the 
letter is sent, and this should occupy the lower half of the envel- 
ope as indicated in the models below. On the first line is the 
name with its title. This should be written so that its extremities 
will be equally distant from the ends of the envelope, and so that 
the space above the writing shall be as wide as that below. 

If the one addressed lives in a city or in a town where mail is deliv- 
ered by carrier, the number of the door and the name of the street 
occupy the second line, the name of the post-office the third, and the 
name of the state the fourth. The name of the state may be omitted, 
if the city is of the first class. If the one addressed does not live in a 
city or such a town, the name of the post-office occupies the second line* 
the name of the county the third, and the name of the state the fourth. 
A comma should follow each item on the envelope, except the last, 
which should be followed by a period. 

The stamp should be placed on the upper right-hand corner. If 
placed in any other position, it is likely to be missed in cancelling. 
The letter, then, may be shoved to one side, and lost or delayed. 

Most of the letters sent to the Dead Letter Office go there because 
something in the address on the envelope is wrong. 

Models. 

(0- 






6t<CC.&-ZJ1&-C€l. 



118 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

(2). 







e-ut (fie-ide- 



EXERCISES FOR PRACTICE. 1 

Write the headings, introductions , and conclusions of 
the following letters, omitting the messages, and show how 
the envelope should be addressed : — 

1. A business letter to the Christopher Sower Co., text-book 
publishers in Philadelphia, 614 Arch St. 

2. A letter to your sister living in the city of Denver, her P. 0. 
Box being number 1182. 

3. A letter to the principal of the public schools of Pine Grove 
in Pennsylvania, whose name you do not know. 

4. An answer to the following advertisement:— 

WANTED. — A teacher of the common branches 
to fill unexpired term of teacher resigned. Address 
with references and testimonials, L. W. James, 
Mount Joy, Lane. Co., Pa. 

5. A letter introducing one of .your friends to another who lives 
in California. 

1 The teacher can easily increase the number and variety of these 
exercises to suit special needs. Much other valuable and interesting 
matter concerning the art of correspondence may be found in a very 
useful and practical work, " How to Write Letters," by Prof. J. Willis 
Westlake. 



LETTER- WRITING. 119 



LESSON 55. 

1. Write a letter to the president of the school-board in the dis- 
trict in which you live, applying for the position of teacher in an 
ungraded school where a vacancy exists. 

2. Answer the following advertisement, making full inquiry rel- 
ative to purchasing: — 

FOR SALE. — A good cyclopedia. Cost, when 
new, fifty dollars. Address J. M. Carr, Drifton, 
Pa. 

3. Write a letter to a friend living somewhere in the state of 
Iowa, describing the way you spent your last holiday. 

4. Write a letter to the proprietor of a book-store in reply to one 
from him, stating to you that your last bill of books makes your 
indebtedness to him nineteen dollars. Enclose ten dollars and ask 
for a few days' time in which to pay the rest. 

5. Write to a friend politely refusing to loan him fifty dollars, for 
which he has asked. 

6. Write a Christmas letter to your parents. 

Additional Notes and Hints on Letter-Writing. 

1. Use white paper and black ink. 

2. Do not use figures for words except in writing dates and sums of 
money. 

3. When you write asking a favor of one who has no business inter- 
est in the reply, enclose a stamp. Acknowledge favors promptly. 

4. If the name of a state is very short, do not abbreviate it. Ohio 
looks better on an envelope than 0. When abbreviations are used, 
they should be very plainly written ; Pom. is often mistaken for Term., 
Pa. for Va., Col. for Col., Md. for Me. or Lid, 

5. Use titles of respect and courtesy when addressing others, but do 
not give them to yourself. In letter-writing, only the highest title a 
person may have is given, the only exception being where one title is 
either Sr. or Jr., or where the first name is omitted and the title takes 
its place ; as, Mrs. Dr. Martin, Rev. Mr. Shaw, Mr. J. M. Fritz, Jr. 

6. Degrees indicating scholarship are always abbreviated in letter- 
writing; as, A.M., LL.D., etc.; those that indicate high honors in 
church and state, seldom ; as, President, Archbishop, Governor. 

7. The character & for the word and is used only in the names of 
business firms. 



120 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

8. Do not let the originals of testimonials go out of your hands. 
Send copies with the word copy written at the extreme top. 

9. Every one should keep himself informed in regard to the legal 
amount of postage necessary to send letters and other mailable matter. 
Insufficient postage is often the cause of delaying a letter, sending it 
to the Dead Letter Office, or making the one addressed pay postage 
due. 

10. The number of the post-office box, instead of the number of 
the door and the name of the street, is sometimes placed on the 
envelope. 

11. If the envelope is crowded, the name of the county or the num- 
ber of the post-office box may be placed by itself in the lower left-hand 
corner of the envelope. 

12. On postal cards, omit the introduction. 

13. Avoid the habit of omitting words in letters as is done in tele- 
grams; as, " Yours just received," "regret delay," "attend to it soon." 
Avoid unnecessary hackneyed phrases; as, "contents noted." 

14. Certain articles, such as liquids in breakable bottles, explosives, 
perishable articles, and anything pertaining to lotteries, are prohibited 
by law from being sent by mail. 

15. The usage of polite society requires that formal notes and invi- 
tations and answers to them be expressed in the third person instead 
of in the first and second. The heading, introduction, and conclusion 
are omitted, with the exception of the place of residence and the date, 
which are placed in the lower left-hand corner. Formal notes and 
invitations should not be written for informal occasions. 

Model. 



Cy^l-i.'-CZ€t^ 4>t€.'Z,'C -€l<£ <f 






Jggy. 



ADDITIONAL EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION 121 

Additional Exercises in Composition. 

As much composition should be taught in connection 
with English gram aar as circumstances will permit, and 
the monotony of composition work should be avoided by 
conducting a variety of exercises. The teacher should 
always be careful, however, to choose exercises suited to 
the ability and peculiar needs of his pupils. 

Before pupils are allowed to write, they should be drawn 
into conversation on the subject about which they are to 
write. Every subject has connected with it certain words 
and expressions which the pupil needs to acquire before he 
can express well his thoughts on that subject. Conversa- 
tion is the natural means of acquiring these terms, as well 
as the best means of acquiring the information needed on 
the subject. Therefore, if the pupil is allowed to write 
without first having conversed on the subject, he will not 
only fail to have his vocabulary increased, but his produc- 
tion will show both a lack of interest on his part, and a 
lack of familiarity with the facts. 

Perhaps some may find exercises suited to their needs 
among the following suggestions : — 

1. Read to the pupils some simple story in prose or verse, and 
have them reproduce the same in their own words. 

Sometimes the pupil may be allowed to read and study the story 
before-hand, and then reproduce it in class. 

Stories like The Pied Piper of Hamelin, by Robert Browning, 
The Leak in the Dyke, by Phoebe Carey, selections from .ZEsop's 
Fables, mythological tales like the story of Ulysses and the one- 
eyed giant Polypheme, the flood in Greece during the reign of 
Deucalion, are all useful. Brewer's Reader s Hand-book, the 
chapter on Noted Names of Fiction in the back part of Web- 
ster's Unabridged Dictionary, furnish material for exercises of 
this kind. 

2. Conduct an oral exercise in composition by having eacli pupil 
tell a short story or anecdote, that he has read and studied. 



122 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

Telling a good story well is a rare and valuable accomplishment ; 
but aside from its practical utility, an exercise of this kind trains 
the mind to rapid thought and to a ready use of its vocabulary. 

3. Conduct exercises in paraphrasing. 

Paraphrasing is restating a passage in other words for the pur- 
pose of making its meaning plainer. 

Model. 
Passage.— Under a spreading chestnut tree 
The village smithy stands ; 
The smith a mighty man is he, 

With large and sinewy hands ; 
And the muscles of his brawny arms 
Are strong as iron bands. 
Paraphrase. — The village blacksmith-shop stands under a big 
chestnut tree with wide-spreading branches. The blacksmith is a 
very strong man. His hands and arms are so large and muscular 
that they seem almost as strong as bands of iron. 

Task. — Paraphrase the following lines from Charles Lamb: — 
The frugal snail, with forecast of repose, 
Carries his house with him where'er he goes; 
Peeps out, — and if there comes a shower of rain, 
Retreats to his small domicile again. 
Touch but a tip of him, a horn,--'tis well, — 
He curls up in his sanctuary shell. 
He's his own landlord, his own tenant; stay 
Long as he will, he dreads no Quarter Day. 
Himself he boards and lodges; both invites 
And feasts himself; sleeps with himself o' nights. 
He spares the upholsterer trouble to procure 
Chattels; himself is his own furniture, 
And his sole riches. Wheresoe'er he roam, — 
Knock when you will, — he's sure to be at home. 

4. Writing the story or thought suggested by a picture is an ex- 
cellent composition exercise. The reading-books, geographies, and 
other text-books, as well as the illustrated papers and story-books, 
furnish plenty of material. When possible, cut out the picture 
•and paste it on card-board, so that the pupil will have no oppor- 
tunity to read the story. 



ADDITIONAL EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION 123 

5. Pupils may write descriptions of familiar buildings, persons, 
and other objects, without naming the thing described. Then, after 
reading or hearing each other's descriptions, they may try to name 
the objects. 

6. Expand a sentence, line of poetry, or short statement into a 
paragraph containing in full what is only suggested in the short 
statement. A series of questions will lead the pupil to see ail that 
is suggested. 

Model. 

Sentence.— A horse jumped over the fence, and broke his 
leg- 
Questions.— Where was the horse? Where was the fence? 
What kind of fence was it? How high? What made the horse 
jump? What was on the opposite side of the fence from the 
horse? What was on the same side with the horse? Was the 
horse hitched to anything? Had he a harness? Had he a halter 
or bridle? How did he come to be there? What was the color 
of the horse? Which leg was broken? Where was it broken? 
What caused it to break? Why were not the other three legs 
broken? What became of the horse after his leg was broken? 

Task. — Write a composition about the horse that shall be an 
answer to all the foregoing questions. 

7. Write a description of the personal appearance and character 
of some fictitious personage ; for example, read from Dickens' 
Christmas Stories, " The Cricket on the Hearth" and then write a 
description of Boxer, Tackleion, or Caleb Plummer. 

Miles Standish and Priscilla in " The Courtship of Miles Stand- 
ish" by Longfellow, are also good subjects. In fact, there is no 
end to the material for this kind of composition. 

8. Biographies of historical personages may be written according 
to the following outline : — 

1. Birthplace and parentage. 

2. Early life and education. 

3. Literary or other work. 
(Name of person.) J 4. Character. 

5. Personal appearance. 

6. Famous contemporaries. 

7. Place in literature, art, science, or politics. 



124 



PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



9. More elaborate essays and theses should be outlined according 
to the nature of the subject. The writer should exhaust all the 
sources of information at his command before making an outline 
(we cannot outline what we do not have), and then, in composing, 
if it is a production designed to please rather than instruct, he 
should try to keep the outline from being prominent. The outline 
is a skeleton, very necessary to the structure, but not pleasant to 
look at. 

Subjects for Essays and Theses. 



The Value of Lectures. 

A Description of a Cozy Home. 

Home Amusements. 

Rain and Sunshine. 

Educational Bequests. 

Savings Banks. 

A Sound Mind in a Sound Body. 

Learning a Trade. 

The Editor's Ink-bottle. 

Breeding and Behavior. 

Paying too Dear for the Whistle. 

State Legislation Most Needed. 

The Advantages and Disadvantages 

of Examinations. 
How to Study. 
Inborn and Acquired Intellectual 

Power. 
How Our Public Schools Might be 

Improved. 
English Spelling. 
How Students Waste Time. 
Taking Exercise. 



The Admission of New States. 

Your Neighbor. 

What to Read in a Newspaper. 

The Use of the Dictionary. 

Registered Letters. 

Are Games Beneficial to Adults? 

The President's Cabinet. 

Modern Methods of Heating 
Houses. 

How to Eat. 

An Ounce of Prevention and a 
Pound of Cure. 

Mental Dyspepsia. 

Hardships and Joys of a Farmer's 
Life. 

How People Make and Keep 
Themselves Poor. 

The Old Garret. 

The Neglect of the Study of Eng- 
lish Literature. 

The Art of Advertising. 

Industrial Education. 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



LESSON 56. 

NOUNS. 

What is a noun ? (See Lesson 4.) 

How many kinds of nouns are there ? 

What is a common noun ? 

What is a proper noun ? 

Common nouns are not all alike. 

Here are three common nouns : cow, herd, goodness. 

The first is simply a name common to all cows. 

The second is different. There is more than one cow in 
a herd, and yet a herd is spoken of as one thing. 

The third is the name of something that we cannot see, 
nor hear, nor taste, nor smell, nor touch. It is the name 
of a quality. 

Qualities belong to objects and cannot be separated from 
them ; as, a good man. Good denotes the quality that 
belongs to the man and cannot be separated from him. 
But we sometimes talk about these qualities as if they 
could be separated from the objects to which they belong ; 
that is, we talk about the goodness of the man, as if it 
were a separate thing. 

All common nouns like the first are called simple com- 
mon nouns, and name a thing" as one object. 

All common nouns like the second are called collective 

125 



126 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

common nouns, and name a collection of things of 
the same kind as one object. 

All common nouns like the third are called abstract 
common nouns, and name qualities of objects thought 
of as abstracted or taken away from the objects 
themselves. 

In the following sentences, point out the proper nouns, 
and the simple, collective, and abstract common nouns : — 

1 . The eggs of the ostrich are hatched by the rays of the sun. 

2. Oliver Goldsmith was the fifth in an Irish family of eight 
children. 

3. As Henry approached, he beheld a crowd collected around an 
overburdened horse ; and not one of the throng of men ventured 
to raise his voice or his arm to restrain the brutality of the driver, 
who was dealing out blow after blow upon the helpless beast. 

4. Mary Stuart, queen of Scots, behaved with composure and 
• resignation when the fatal morning arrived. 

Give qualities to the following nouns, and then give the 
abstract nouns which name the qualities : — 

Model. — The clear water. The clearness of the water. 



water, 


king, 


honey, 


lark, 


oak, 


window, 


robber, 


lion, 


knife, 


rose, 


paper, 


sun. 



Any word used as a name is a noun ; no matter what its 
use may be at other times. In the sentence, The paper is 
white, the word the is an adjective, because it modifies the 
noun paper ; but in the sentence, The is an adjective, the 
word the is a noun, because it is the name of a word. 1 

1 This changing of a word from one part of speech to another is very 
common in English. Only the use of a word can determine its name. 
In the sentence, The paper is ivhite, the word paper is a noun ; but in the 
sentence, Paper my room, the same word is a verb. 



COMPOUND WORDS AND NA3TES. 127 

Compound Words and Names. 

A name is not always a single word. One name is some- 
times made up of two or more words. Some of these 
words are written and printed with a hyphen * (-) between 
them ; as, merchant-tailor, sailor-boy, ex-mayor. 

Some of them are written and printed as one word ; as, 
blackberry, unbelief, sunrise. 

When they form proper names, they are written and 
printed as separate words; as, Charles Lamb, Gulf of 
Mexico, Jersey City. 

All such names, whether written as one word^ or as 
separate words, are compound nouns, and are treated as 
single words. 

Capital Letter Rule. — In a compound proper 
name, only the part which would form a proper name if 
used alone, should begin with a capital letter. 

In the proper name Indian Ocean, each word begins with a capital 
letter, because neither, taken alone, would be the proper name of that 
body of water. But in the name Atlantic ocean, only the word Atlan- 
tic should begin with a capital letter, because it alone may be used (and 
often is) as the proper name of that body of water. 

So we should write New York city is on the western hemisphere; but 
Jersey City is a suburb of New York city. 

Give reasons for the capital letters used in the following 

compound names : — 

Bay of Biscay, Gulf of Mexico, Mississippi river, Peter the Her- 
mit, Caspian sea, Black Sea, Sea of Azov. 

1 When the union of two words as a compound name becomes thor- 
oughly established by long usage, the tendency of good authors is to 
drop the hyphen. Dictionaries do not keep pace with this tendency; 
accordingly we find the words teaspoon, washtub, seashore, courthouse, and 
others still printed with the hyphen in the dictionaries, but elsewhere 
we seldom find them so printed. Webster's Dictionary prints bookstand 
and bookstore without the hyphen, but places it in bookstall and bookcase. 



128 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

Use the following nouns in sentences, using capitals 
when they are needed: — 

edward the confessor, mediterranean sea, ohio river, pacific ocean, 
Chesapeake bay, president harrison, hudson bay, lake superior. 

Abbreviations. 

Certain nouns are used so often in the same way that 
they are frequently shortened to save space and time in 
writing and printing. The word bushel, for instance, 
occurs so many times in market reports and commercial 
accounts that it would add materially to the length of such 
reports if we were to write the word in full. Hence we 
write only the shortened form bu. The same is true of 
the title Mister, written before names, and represented by 
Mr., and of hundreds of other words. 

Definition. — A word shortened for the sake of 
saving time and space in writing and printing" is 
called an abbreviation. 

Rule. — Abbreviations should always be followed by the 
period. 

Most abbreviations begin with capital letters, whether 
the word abbreviated does or not ; some begin with capital 
or small letters, and a few always begin with small letters. 

Usage differs very much in regard to abbreviations* 
They should seldom be used in ordinary composition, 
except as titles. The list of abbreviations given at the 
end of this book or in a good dictionary, should be fre- 
quently referred to as a guide in their use. 

Find the meaning of the following abbreviations, and 
show how they are used: — 

inst., P. 0., Esq., etc., C. O. D., Ph.D., doz., e. g., Lieut, 
Supt., hdkf., qt, Ult., A. M., p., Jr., St., Col., ult., oz. 



NOUNS— INFLECTION. 129 

REVIEW. 
1. Define a noun ; each of the two great classes of nouns. 2. Define 
each of the three kinds of common nouns. 3. Show how words change 
from one class to another. 4. Describe and illustrate the three ways of 
writing compound words. 5. What is the tendency among good authors 
in regard to the use of the hyphen? 6. Show how to apply the capital 
letter rule for compound proper names. 7. What is an abbreviation ? 
What words are abbreviated? 8. Illustrate the use of capitals with 
abbreviations. 9. What mark of punctuation should follow an abbre- 
viation ? 



LESSON 57. 

Most languages are inflected; that is, the words in them change 
their forms to correspond to a change in meaning and use. The 
Anglo-Saxon language, the mother of our English language, was an 
inflected language ; but the English language has lost nearly all its 
inflections, and only in a comparatively few instances does the form 
of the word change when its meaning and use change. We say in 
English, The man sees the boy; but we may change the meaning 
and use of these words and say, The boy sees tJie man, and there is 
no change in their form. 

If these same sentences were expressed in one of the inflected 
languages, the change in the form of the nouns would be very 
noticeable. In Latin, for instance, the first sentence would read, 
Vir puerum videt, and the second, Puer virum videt. 

It is obvious, therefore, that in describing the forms and uses of 
the elements of the English language, we should not proceed as if 
it were an inflected language, and apply the names of the inflections 
when the inflections themselves are wanting. But if, as is often the 
case in English, we find the place of the inflection supplied by some 
word or compound used especially for that purpose, and for no 
other, the name of the inflection may be appropriately extended to 
that substitution. For example, in most languages, gender is an 
inflection, and is designated by the ending of the word : mensa, the 
Latin for table, is feminine, because it ends in a. In English a few 
words have their gender marked by form ; as, emperor, empress ; 
but in most cases either a different word or a compound marks the 
gender; as, boy, girl; man-servant, maid-servant. This substitution, 
although not strictly an inflection, is called gender. 



130 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

The term modification is generally used instead of inflection to 
apply to such substitutions as well as to changes in form. It is 
defined as follows: — 

Definition. — A modification is a change in the form 
of any part of speech, to correspond to a change in its 
meaning or use. 

In the English language nouns have three modifications: gender, 
number, and possession. 1 

Gender. 

If we say, The emperor is dead, but the empress is 
still living, we are understood to mean by the word 
emperor a person of the male sex, and by the word 
empress, a person of the female sex. 

This modification of the noun to denote sex is called 
gender. 

Nouns naming persons and animals of the male sex are 
of the masculine gender. 

Nouns naming persons and animals of the female sex 
are of the feminine gender. 

In English, gender belongs to the noun, and corresponds 
to sex, which belongs to the object. There are, therefore, 
only two genders. 

Nouns like child, parent, chicken, and the like, which 
apply to persons and animals of either sex, are said to be 
of either or common gender, when we do not know from 
the context which sex is meant. 

Nouns that name objects without sex, are said to be of 
the neutar gender. Neuter means neither. In parsing 
such nouns, no mention should be made of gender. 

1 The study of English should be simplified by omitting all discussion 
of inflections 'or modifications) when they are wanting, and are not rep- 
resented by any substitute ; hence it has seemed best to omit person and 
case as modifications of nouns and substitute possession. (See Lesson G5.) 



NOUNS— GENDER. 131 

Collective nouns are neuter, unless the individuals of 
the collection are thought of. 

Only a few nouns in the English language have gender 
forms. Most of them are given in the list found in the 
next lesson. 

The feminine gender is distinguished from the masculine 
in three ways : — 

(1) By the use of different terminations; as, heir, 



(2) By the use of different words ; as, boy, girl. 

(3) By forming" compound words; as, man-servant, 
maid-servant. 

Peculiarities in the Use of Terminations. 

1. The termination most used to form the feminine gender is ess. 1 

2. Sometimes it is suffixed to the masculine form without change ; 
as, heir, heiress. 

3. Sometimes the masculine termination is dropped, and ess is 
then suffixed ; as, abbot, abbess. 

4. Often the vowel of the masculine termination is dropped, and 
the consonant combines with the termination suffixed ; as, actor, 
actress. 

5. In a few words, ine or ina is the feminine termination; as, 
hero, heroine; czar, czarina. 

1 The termination ess came into English from the Norman French, and 
began to take the place of the English -ster (A. S. estre) early in the 
fourteenth century ; and -ster came gradually to be used either as a mas- 
culine termination, as in youngster, or to denote the doer without regard 
to sex, as in punster, huckster, etc. In its original use -ster denoted the 
female doer of an action, a meaning partially preserved in the word 
spinster ; while the male doer of the action was denoted by the ending 
er, which now denotes the doer without regard to sex, as in the words, 
doer, spinner, reader, catcher. 

The two feminine endings -ster and ess are strangely mixed in the 
words songstress, seamstress, and a few others in less common use. 

In the word vixen, an old feminine of fox, we have a remnant of an- 
other Old English feminine termination, en. 



132 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

6. The feminine termination a is found in words derived from 
Spanish and other Romance languages ; as, infant, infanta. 

7. Certain words derived from Latin have their feminine forms 
ending in trix; as, testator, testatrix. 

REVIEW. 
1. What is inflection? How does English differ from other lan- 
guages in inflection ? How is this illustrated ? 2. What is sometimes 
substituted for lost inflection in English? How is this illustrated? 
3. What word in English is used instead of the word inflection, in 
describing the different changes in form and meaning? Why? 4. 
Define a modification. 5. What modifications have nouns ? 6. W T hat 
is gender ? What is the relation of gender and sex ? How many gen- 
ders are there? Name them. 7. How are the terms either gender and 
neuter gender used? 8. What is the gender of collective nouns? 9. In 
how many ways and in what ways is the feminine gender distinguished 
from the masculine? 10. Mention and illustrate the peculiarities in 
the use of termination to denote the feminine gender. 



LESSON 58. 

Study the folloiving list of words, and select and copy 
by themselves, — 

1. All those ivhose gender is denoted by different words. 

2. All those whose gender is denoted by forming com- 
pound ivords. 

3. All those in which ess is suffixed to the masculine, 
without change, to form the feminine. 

4. All those in which the vowel of the masculine termi- 
nation is dropped in forming the feminine. 

5. All those in which the entire masculine termination 
is dropped in forming the feminine. 

6. All those in which trix is suffixed to the masculine 
to form the feminine. 

7. All those in which ine or ina is suffixed to the mas- 
culine to form the feminine. 



NO UNS— GENDER. 



133 



8. All those in which a is suffixed to the masculine to 
form the feminine. 

To the Teacher. — A good way to conduct the recitation of this 
lesson, is to assign to each member of the class one of these lists of 
words, and let each, either on the blackboard or on paper, select and 
write the words belonging to his list as the teacher or a member of the 
class pronounces the masculine forms in the order given here. If the 
list is too long for one lesson, make two or more lessons of it. 



Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Actor, 


actress. 


Count, 


countess. 


Adjutor, 


adjutrix. 


Czar, 


czarina. 


Administrator, 


administratrix. 


Dauphin, 


dauphiness. 


Adulterer, 


adulteress. 


Deacon, 


deaconess. 


Adventurer, 


adventuress. 


Don, 


donna. 


Arbiter, 


arbitress. 


Drake, 


duck. 


Auditor, 


auditress. 


Drone, 


bee. 


Augustus, 


Augusta. 


Duke, 


duchess. 


Author, 


authoress. 


Earl, 


countess. 


Bachelor, 


maid. 


Editor, 


editress. 


Baron, 


baroness. 


Elector, 


electress. 


Beau, 


belle. 


Embassador ) 


( embassadress 


Benefactor, 


benefactress. 




< or 


Billy-goat, 


nanny-goat. 


ambassador, ) 


( ambassadress 


Boy, 


girl. 


Emperor, 


empress. 


Bridegroom, 


bride. 


Enchanter, 


enchantress. 


Brother, 


sister. 


Englishman, 


Englishwoman. 


Buck, 


doe. 


Equestrian, 


equestrienne. 


Buck-rabbit, 


doe-rabbit. 


Executor, 


executrix. 


Bullock, ox, | 

or steer, i 


heifer. 


Father, 


mother. 




Francis, 


Frances. 


Canon, 


canoness. 


Friar or monk, 


nun. 


Caterer, 


cateress. 


Gander, 


goose. 


Chanter, 


chantress. 


Gentleman, 


(lady. 

I gentlewoman. 


Charles, 


f Charlotte or 
I Caroline. 




George, 


Georgiana. 


Coadjutor, 


coadjutrix. 


Giant, 


giantess. 


Cock-sparrow, 


hen-sparrow. 


God, 


goddess. 


Colt, 


filly. 


Governor, 


governess. 


Conductor, 


conductress. 


Grandfather, 


grandmother. 



134 



PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Hart, 


roe. 


Mr., 


Mrs. or Miss 


He-bear, 


she-bear. 


Negro, 


negress. 


Heir, 


heiress. 


Nephew, 


niece. 


Henry, 


f Henrietta 
1 or Harriet. 


Ogre, 


ogress. 


Papa, 


mamma. 


Heritor, 


heritrix. 


Patron, 


patroness. 


Hero, 


heroine. 


Preceptor, 


preceptress. 


Horse, 


mare. 


Peer, 


peeress. 


Host, 


hostess. 


Poet, 


poetess. 


Hunter, 


huntress. 


Porter, 


portress. 


Husband, 


wife. 


Priest, 


priestess. 


Idolater, 


idolatress. 


Prince, 


princess. 


Infante, { a . pAn " 1 infanta. 

' ( ish prince f 

Instructor, instructress. 
Inventor, inventress. 


Prior, 


prioress. 


Prophet, 
Protector, 


prophetess, 
protectress. 


Jesse, 


Jessie. 


Ram, 


ewe. 


Jew, 
John, 


Jewess. 
f Jane, Joan, 
1 or Joanna. 


Signore, f pr °- , 

. -< nouncec 

bignor, ( seen , IJUr 


> signora. 


Sir, 


madam. 


Joseph, 


Josephine. 


Sire, 


dam. 


Julius, 


( Julia. 
1 Juliet. 


Shepherd, 


shepherdess. 


Son, 


daughter. 


Lad, 


lass. 


Songster, 


songstress. 


Landgrave, 


landgravine. 


Sorcerer, 


sorceress. 


Landlord, 


landlady. 


Sultan, 


f sultana. 

{ sultaness. 


Lion, 


lioness. 


Lord, 


lady. 


Stag, 


hind. 


Louis, 


f Louisa. 
1 Louise. 


Swain, 


nymph. 


Tailor, 


tailoress. 


Lucius, 


Lucy. 


Testator, 


testatrix. 


Man, 


woman. 


Tiger, 


tigress. 


Man-servant, 


maid-servant. 


Traitor, 


traitress. 


Marquis, 


marchioness. 


Tutor, 


tutoress. 


Mayor, 


mayoress. 


Victor, 


f Victoria. 
1 victress. 


Master, 


mistress. 




Merman, 


mermaid. 


( pro- 
VisCOUnt,-^ nounced [^viscountess. 


Milter, 


spawner. 


v. vl'kuun 


. ) 


Monitor, 


monitress. 


Widower, 


widow. 



NOUNS— NUMBER. 135 

Note. — The feminine termination ess is less used than formerly. 
It is gradualry suffering the same fate as the many other inflections 
that once belonged to current English, but are now found only as 
remnants or relics. Poetess, editress, authoress, and many other 
feminines have gone entirely out of use, except when it is necessary 
to point out the sex. 



LESSON 59. 

Number. 

If we say, The eat purrs, and then change the sentence 
and say, The cats purr, we see that the noun eat has been 
changed both in form and meaning. The noun cat in the 
first sentence names only one animal, while the noun cats 
in the second names more than one. This modification of 
a noun is called number. 

Definition. — Number is that modification of nouns 
(and pronouns) which denotes whether one object or 
collection of objects is named, or more than one. 

Nouns have two numbers : the Singular and the Plural. 

A noun in the singular number names one object or col- 
lection of objects; as, girl, box, family. 

A noun in the plural number names more than one 
object or collection of objects; as, girls, boxes, families. 

Formation of the Plural. 

Nouns are generally made plural by suffixing s to 
the singular ; but, when the singular ends in a sound 
that will not unite with s, es is suffixed and is pro- 
nounced as a separate syllable ; as, Sing, bay, Plu. 
bays; Sing, church, Plu. churches. 

Form the plurals of the following nouns : — 

Ax, cow, dog, engine, gas, imp, lamb, niche, pen, robber, book, -chim- 
ney, ditch, fiie ; horse, kite, monkey, owl, quail, stag, uncle, vote, wedge. 



136 



PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



\ 



The following are exceptions : — 
1. Nouns ending in o. 

(1) Most nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant suffix es to 
form the plural without increase of syllables ; as, Sing, buffalo, 
Plu. buffaloes. 

(2) Some nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant suffix s 
only; as, Sing, canto, Plu. cantos. 

(3) Proper nouns ending in o, and all nouns in o preceded by a 
vowel, suffix s; as, Sing. Plato, Plu. Platos; Sing, cameo, Plu. 
cameos. 



Write the plurals of the following nouns, 
dictionary when necessary. Copy them in 
cording to the foregoing distinctions : — 



albino, 

bamboo, 

bravo, 

buffalo, 

calico, 

canto, 

cargo, 

Cato, 

Cicero, 

domino, 

duodecimo, 

echo, 



embryo, 

flamingo, 

fresco, 

grotto, 

halo, 

hero, 

inuendo, 

junto, 



manifesto,, 
memento, 
mosquito, 



motto, 

mulatto, 

negro, 

no, 

palmetto, 

piano, 

portfolio, 

portico, 

potato, 

proviso, 

quarto, 



consulting the 
three lists ac- 



salvo, 

Scipio, 

sirocco, 

solo, 

stiletto, 

tomato, 

tornado, 

two, 

tyro, 

volcano, 

zero. 



2. Nouns ending in/ or fe. 

(1) Some nouns ending/ orfe change the/ to ve, and then suffix 
s to form the plural ; as, Sing, calf, Plu. calves. 

(2) Most nouns ending in / and all ending in ff except staff l form 
their plurals regularly. 



1 Staff has two plurals, staffs and staves. When the singular means a 
hody of officers, only the regular plural form, staffs, is used. Compounds 
of staff suffix s to form the plural ; as, flag- 



NO UNS— NUMBER. 



137 



giraffe, 


loaf, 


sheaf, 


grief, 


proof, 


shelf, 


gulf, 


quaff, 


strife, 


half, 


reef, 


thief, 


hoof, 


roof, 


turf, 


kerchief, 


safe, 


waif, 


knife, 


scarf, 


wharf, 


leaf, 


self, 


wife, 


life, 


serf, 


wolf. 



Write the plurals of the following nouns, consulting the 
dictionary when necessary. Copy them in two lists accord- 
ing to the foregoing distinctions : — 

beef, 

belief, 

brief, 

calf, 

cliff, 

chief, 

dwarf, 

elf, 

fief, 

fife, 

3. Nouns ending* in y. 

(1) Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant form their plurals 
by changing y to ie, and suffixing s; as, Sing, lady, Plu. ladies. 

In early English these nouns ended in ie instead of y ; as, ladle in- 
stead of lady. Their plurals were then formed regularly by adding s. 
We have retained the old plural, and in order to form it, must first 
form the old singular. 

(2) The plurals of proper nouns ending in ?/ preceded by a con- 
sonant should be formed in the same way, although some writers 
simply add s; as, Sing. Antony, Plu. Antonies. 

Write the plurals of the following nouns, placing in one 
list all that are regular, and in another all that are ex- 
ceptional : — 



alley, 


daisy, 


journey, 


pony, 


ally, 


day, 


jury, ' 


pulley, 


attorney, 


ditty, 


lady, 


sky> 


body, 


Dorothy, 


lily, 


soliloquy, 


boy, 


essay, 


Mary, 


study, 


city, 


fairy, 


mercy, 


Timothy, 


charity, 


fancy, 


money, 


turkey, 


chimney, 


Fanny, 


monkey, 


turnkey, 


colloquy, 1 


glory, 


mystery, 


valley, 


country, 


jockey, 


penny, 


vanity. 



U after q is treated as a consonant. 



138 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

LESSON 60. 

NUMBER CONTINUED. 

4. Radical changes. 

A few nouns form their plurals by a change in the body of the 
word ; as, Sing, mouse, Plu. mice. 

Write the plurals of the following nouns, consulting the 
dictionary when necessary : — 



child, 1 


louse, 


ox, 


foot; 2 


man, 


tooth, 


goose, 


mouse, 


woman. 



5. Compound words. 

(1) The plurals of compound nouns retaining the hyphen are 
formed by pluralizing the part described ; in other compound nouns, 
the last part of the word is pluralized ; as, Sing, son-in-law, Plu. 
sons-in-law {son is the part described) ; Sing, pailful, Plu. pailfuls 
(no hyphen) ; Sing, forget-me-not, Plu. forget-me-nots. (There is 
no part described in compound words made of phrases.) 

(2) Words ending in the syllable man, like Frenchman, are not 
all compounds of man. Those that are not, do not follow the fore- 
going rule, but suffix s to form the plural ; as, Sing. German, Plu. 
Germans; Sing, talisman, Plu. talismans. 

(3) A few compound words pluralize both parts ; as, Sing, man- 
child, Plu. men-children. 

1 Formerly a certain class of words formed the plural by suffixing en 
to the singular. Oxen is the only pure remnant of this in common use, 
although eyen, hosen, housen, shoen, and the like were common in early 
English. Brethren has the same ending, but contains also a radical 
change. Children is a double plural; er is another old plural termina- 
tion, which was formerly suffixed to child, forming the plural childer, a 
form still in use among the uneducated in certain parts of England. 
En was suffixed to childer by mistake, but has become established, e 
before r being elided for the sake of euphony. Kine was formerly the 
plural of cow (plural cowen, cuen, or kine), and contains a corruption of 
the old plural termination en. The same may be said of the word swine 
(formerly sowen, plural of sow). 

2 The plural of foot, in one of its uses is regular. If a number of beds 
stand in a row, we may speak of the "foots of the beds," if we do not 
mean their feet, but their lower ends. 



NO UNS— NUMBER. 



139 



(4) When titles are used with names, either the title or the name 
is pluralized ; as, the Mr. Browns or the Messrs. Brown ; but the 
title Mrs. is never pluralized. 

The title Miss should seldom be pluralized except when joint 
action or the like is implied ; as, The Misses Kirk and Fowler sang 
a duet. In other uses Misses is too formal, and in conversation is 
likely to be mistaken for Mrs. 

Titles used with two or more different names are always plural- 
ized ; as, Messrs. Mullin & Loomis. 

Write the plurals of the following nouns in three lists ; 
in the first, place those containing the hyphen ; in the sec- 
ond, place those that end in the syllable man, hut are not 
compounds ; in the third, place those that pluralize both 
parts of the compound. 

Suffix proper names to the abbreviated forms of those 
that may be used as titles; then pluralize according to 
both methods when possible, and use in a sentence the 
form you prefer in each instance : — 



aid-de-camp, 

attorney-at-law, 

billet-doux, 

boot-jack, 

Brahman, 

brother-in-law, 

captain, 

castle-clock, 

cayman, 

chess-man, 

coachful, 

colt's-foot, 

coming-in, 

commander-in-chief, 

court-martial, 

cousin-German, 

cupful, 



desman, 

doctor, 

doorway, 

firman, 

foeman, 

five-year-old, 

general, 

German, 

going-forth, 

going-out, 

hanger-on, 

jack-boot, 

knight-errant, 

leger-de-main, 

leman, 

lieutenant, 

master, 1 



mainspring, 

major, 

man-child, 

man-of-war, 

man-servant, 

man-singer, 

miss, 

misses, 

mister, 

mouse-trap, 

Mussulman, 

Norman, 

ottoman, 

ox-cart, 

pocket-book, 

postmaster-general, 

2vofessor, 



1 The title master is used with the names of boys. 



140 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



reverend, 


spoonful, 


whipper-in, 


sparrow-hawk, 


talisman, 


woman-servant. 


sister-in-law, 


wagon-load, 





6. Letters, figures, etc. 

(1) Letters, figures, characters, signs, and sometimes words that 
are seldom used as nouns, are pluralized by suffixing the apostrophe 
and s ('s); as, t's, 4's, fs, *'s, and's, 1 "For once the Os and 
Macs icere in the right." 

In the following list pluralize the characters, letters, 
etc. : — 
E, i, a, f, =,(),[ ], - if, but, 3, f, V , ||,' t 



LESSON 61. 

NUMBER CONTINUED. 

7. Some nouns have two plurals differing' in mean- 
ing ; as, Sing, brother, Plu. brothers (sons of the same 
parents), and brethren (members of the same society or 
denomination). 

Study both plurals of the nouns in the following lists, 
and use them in sentences so as to show how they differ in 
meaning : — 

Singular. Plural. 

t> • k f bricks (individuals), 

I brick (a collection). 

Cannon i cannons ( individuals )> 

i. cannon (a collection). 

pi .i f cloths (kinds or pieces of cloth), 

I clothes (garments). 

T)i e / d i es (stamps), 

l dice (cubes). 

1 The custom of using the apostrophe in forming the plurals of letters 
only, and of using s without the apostrophe with figures, signs, etc., is 
growing in favor. 



NO UNS— NUMBER. 



141 



Singular. 



Fish « 

Foot 

Fowl 

Genius 

Head 

Horse 

Index 

Pea . 

Penny 

Sail . 

Shot . 



Plural, 
J fishes (individuals), 
l fish (a collection). 
/ feet (the lower parts of the body), 
t foot (foot-soldiers). 

fowls (individuals), 

fowl (the species). 
f geniuses (men of uncommon ability), 
t genii (spirits). 
f heads (individuals), 
I head (a number of cattle). 
r horses (animals), 
I horse (soldiers). 
J indexes (reference tables), 
I indices (signs). 
/peas (individuals), 
I pease (collectively). 

pennies (coins), 

pence (expression of value). 
j sails (pieces of canvas), 
<• sail (ships). 

f shots (a number of discharges), 
l shot (number of balls). 



8. Some nouns have no plurals. They are 

(1) Names of materials, except when they name different kinds 
or things made of the material ; as, Sing, iron, Plu. irons (things 
made of iron), Sing, coffee, Plu. coffees (kinds of coffee). 

(2) Names of sciences, many abstract nouns, and all nouns that 
name things which, from their nature, can exist only in the singular ; 
as, chemistry, hardness, hay. 

Copy in three lists the following nouns, placing in the 
first names of materials, in the second names of sciences, 
in the third the remaining nouns that have no plural : — 
algebra, cider, corn, darkness, 



butter, 



coffee, 



ease, 



1 Kinds of fish ; as, shad, mackeral, like the word fish, have two plurals 
differing in meaning, except that compounds of fish, as sunfish, catfish, 
have the same form in both numbers. 



142 



PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



eloquence, 


greatness, 


music, 


rye, 


ethics, 


honesty, 


news, 


silver, 


flax, 


iron, 


peace, 


sloth, 


fun, 


lead, 


politics, 


sweetness, 


gold, 


mathematics, 


rice, 


wheat. 


grammar, 


milk, 







LESSON 62. 

NUMBER CONTINUED. 

9. Some nouns are always plural ; as, ashes, oats. 

(1) There is a singular form corresponding to some of these 
words, but it does not correspond in meaning to the plural; as, 
colors (a flag), Sing, color (a hue). 

(2) Sometimes this singular form is an adjective ; as, bitters, 
Sing, bitter (an adjective). 

(3) The three plural nouns alms, eaves, and riches were formerly 
singular. 

Copy the following nouns in four lists, placing in the 
first those whose singulars do not correspond in meaning ; 
in the second, those whose singular forms are adjectives ; 
in the third, those that were formerly singular ; in the 
fourth, the remainder: — 



aborigines, 


drawers, 


nippers, 


spectacles, 


alms, 


dregs, 


nones, 


staggers, 


annals, 


eaves, 


nuptials, 


sweets, 


antipodes, 


entrails, 


obsequies, 


thanks, 


archives, 


fetters, 


orgies, 


tidings, 


ashes, 


forceps, 


pinchers, 


tongs, 


assets, 


goggles, 


pliers, 


trappings, 


bitters, 


goods, 


reins, 


trowsers, 


bowels, 


grounds, 


remains, 


tweezers, 


breeches, 


ides, 


riches, 


uppers, 


calends, 


letters, 


scissors, 


valuables, 


chops, 


matins, 


shambles, 


vespers, 


clothes, 


measles, 


shears, 


victuals, 


colors, 


narrows, 


snuffers, 


yellows. 


customs, 









NO UNS— NUMBER. 



143 



10. Some nouns have the same form for both num- 
bers ; as, Sing, deer, Plu. deer ; Sing, means, Phi. means. 

(1) Five of this class have two plurals the same in meaning, one 
plural being the same in form as the singular; as, Sing, apparatus, 
Plu. apparatus or apparatuses; Sing, heathen, Plu. heathen or 
heathens; Sing, youth, Plu. youth or youths; Sing, alkali, Plu. 
alkalis or alkalies; Sing, rabbi, Plu. rabbis or rabbies. 

(2) The plurals of 6race, couple, dozen, pair, score, yoke, hun- 
dred, thousand 1 have the same form as the singular when used 
with numerals. When used in other situations, they are regular; 
as, Two dozen ; by dozens. 

Write 2 the plurals of the folloiving nouns in three lists, 
placing in the first those having two plurals the same in 
meaning ; in the second, those whose plurals are like the 
singular when used with numerals ; in the third, the re- 
mainder. Use in sentences the plurals of those that are 
italicized :— 



alkali, 


dozen, 


odds, 


sheep, 


amends, 


gross, 


pains, 


species, 


apparatus, 


grouse, 


pair, 


swine, 


bellows, 


heathen, 


rabbi, 


trout, 


brace, 


hose, 


salmon, 


vermin, 


corps, 


hundred, 


score, 


wages, 


couple, 


means, 


series, 


youth. 


deer, 


million, 







1 The dictionaries do not all recognize this principle, although an ex- 
amination of the quotations in them to illustrate the uses of these words, 
plainly reveals it, as does also good usage in general. 

The tendency, however, which exists in certain localities, to omit the 
plural termination from all nouns denoting quantity or measure, should 
be avoided. We should not use "ten barrel," "five bushel," "twenty 
mile," etc. 

2 Note to the Teacher. — In this lesson, as in nearly all lessons in 
number, the pupil is expected to find the number forms, their meanings, 
their peculiarities, and their pronunciation from the dictionary. The 
teacher should not overlook the importance of such an exercise; for a 
pupil who learns how to consult a dictionary, and who acquires the habit 
of doing it, has at his command a key to much valuable information. 



144 



PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



LESSON 63. 

NUMBER CONTINUED. 

11. Many nouns introduced into English from for- 
eign languages retain their foreign plurals. Some of 
them have also acquired an English plural. 1 

Learn the plurals of the following nouns of foreign 
origin by studying the dictionary, and use them in sen- 
tences : — 



analysis, 


emporium, 


ignis fatuus, 


radius, 


axis, 


formula, 


nebula, 


tableau, 


bandit, 


fungus, 


oasis, 


terminus, 


cherub, 


gymnasium, 


parenthesis, 


vertebra. 


crisis, 


herbarium, 







Note. — The teacher may continue the foregoing exercise by 
means of the following list of foreign nouns, as far as time and the 
nature of the class will permit. 



addendum, 


datum, 


index, 


papilla, 


alumnus, 


diaeresis, 


larva, 


phenomenon, 


amanuensis, 


dogma, 


locus, 


polypus, 


animalculum, 


effluvium, 


madame, 


rhombus, 


antithesis, 


ellipsis, 


magus, 


sarcophagus, 


apex, 


emphasis, 


maximum, 


scholium, 


appendix, 


encomium, 


medium, 


sensorium, 


aquarium, 


erratum, 


memorandum, 


seraph, 


arcanum, 


focus, 


metamorphosis, 


spectrum, 


automaton, 


fulcrum, 


minimum, 


stamen, 


basis, 


genius, 


momentum, 


synopsis, 


beau, 


genus, 


monsieur, 


triumvir, 


calyx, 


hiatus, 


nebula, 


vortex. 


criterion, 


hypothesis, 


nucleus, 





1 When nouns of foreign origin have an English and a foreign plural, 
the English one is often used in a general sense, while the foreign one 
has a technical application. Indexes and indices ;ire notable examples. 



USES OF NOUNS. 



145 



LESSON 64. 

Pluralize the singular nouns of the following list, and 
ivrite the singulars of those that are plural, giving reasons 
in each instance for the plural form. To those that are in 
any wag exceptional or peculiar, append the appropriate 
remarks or explanations: — 



albino, 


elf, 


kidney, 


sail, 


and, 


eloquence, 


letters, 


seraph, 


ashes, 


embryo, 


locus, 


serf, 


basis, 


erratum, 


man-child, 


sloth, 


bitters, 


ethics, 


measles, 


soliloquy, 


bravo, 


fish, 


memento, 


staff, 


butter, 


flax, 


news, 


* 


calyx, 


forceps, 


nippers, 


t, 


Cicero, 


Frenchman, 


Norman, 


talisman, 


'cliff, 


German, 


odds, 


thief, 


coach ful, 


glory, 


ox-cart, 


Timothy, 


coffee, 


gross, 


pains, 


turkey, 


corps, 


grotto, 


pea, 


vermin, 


country, 


grounds, 


peace, 


vespers, 


t, 


half, 


pew, 


vortex, 


day, 


hanger-on, 


pie, 


wages, 


deer, 


head, 


+, 


whale, 


die, 


heathen, 


politics, 


whipper-in, 


dog, 


hen-house, 


proof, 


x, 


doorway, 


hose, 


professor, 


yellows, 


dozen, 


index, 


quaff, 


zebra. 


echo, 


j»tty, 







LESSON 65. 

USES OF NOUNS. 

Nouns may be used in the following constructions : — 
1. As subject. Ex. — News is scarce. 
(a) Two or more connected nouns may form a compound subject: 
as, Scissors, shears, and tongs are useful implements. 
10 



146 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

(6) A noun may be the assumed subject of a participle or infin- 
itive; as, I have an ax to grind; The ax being dull, we should 
grind it. 

(c) A noun may be the assumed subject of a participle or infin- 
itive and the real subject of a verb at the same time ; as, The ax 
being dull, should, be ground. 

2. As subjective complement. Ex. — He was a gen- 
tleman. 

[a] Two or more nouns, connected, may form a compound sub- 
jective complement ; as, He was a gentleman and scholar, 

3. As object complement. Ex. — John saws wood. 

{a) Two or more nouns, connected, may form a compound object 
complement ; as, John studies grammar and arithmetic. 

{b) Nouns may be object complements of participles and infin- 
itives ; as, Harry, having a knife, cut his finger. He meant to cut 
a stick with the knife. 

4. As objective complement. Ex. — They made John 
captain. 

{(() Two or more nouns, connected, may form a compound object- 
ive complement ; as, They elected John secretary and treasurer. 

5. Independently. Ex. — James, where is the pen f 

6. As the principal term after a preposition. Ex. 
— Go for the doctor. 

{a) Two or more nouns, connected, may form a compound prin- 
cipal term ; as, Nothing can grow without rain and sunshine. 

7. As an appositive. Ex. — Peter, the fisherman, was 

chosen. 

{a) Two or more nouns may form a compound appositive; as, / 
visited Mr. Clark, my old friend and classmate. 

8. As an adverbial modifier. Ex. — He went home. 

9. As an indirect object. Ex. — Congress gave Gen- 
eral Lafayette a sword. 

10. As a possessive. Ex. — Samson 9 s hair was cut off. 



NO UNS— POSSESSION. 147 

State how each noun in the following sentence is used ; 
give the number of each, and its gender if it has any : — 

John's father bought a new dictionary last week, and gave it to 
John as a reward, because he had been a faithful and studious boy 
at school. 

Which three uses of the noun are not found in the fore- 
going sentence ? 

Definition. — Possession is that modification of a 
noun which denotes ownership. 

In Lesson 13 we learned that a noun denoting possession 
has the possessive sign, which is made by suffixing the 
apostrophe and s ('s) l to all nouns except plurals ending in 
s. To these the apostrophe only is suffixed. Ex. — Sing. 
bog's, Plu. boys' ; Sing, mans, Plu. mens. 

Form the singular possessive and the plural possessive of 
each of the following nouns, and use them in sentences : — 



sister, 


mother, 


table, cameo, 


mouse, 


five-year-old, 


commander-in-chief, beef, 


horse, 


king, 


son-in-law, 2 cherub, 


Harry, 


princess, 


jugful, court-martial. 


hero, 


desk, 


Edward the Confessor {no plural), 



Remark. — A noun used to denote possession is usually said to be in 
the possessive case, but it is better to omit case as a modification of nouns. 

The definition usually given for case as applied to nouns is, " Case is 
that modification of a noun which denotes its office in the sentence." 
(If not worded exactly thus, it is expressed in words which mean the 
same.) But case does not "denote the office." We must know the 



1 The possessive sign is derived from Anglo-Saxon. Nouns of the first 
declension in that language had es for the genitive (possessive) ending 
in the singular. In later English, this was extended to all nouns and 
also to the plural number. In modern English, e was dropped, and its 
omission was marked by the apostrophe. (See note, Lesson 13.) 

2 Remember that, in compound nouns, whether the hyphen is used or 
not, the possessive sign is always at the end of the word, no matter 
where the plural ending may be ; as, attorney s-at-law' s, Peter the Great's. 



148 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

office of a noun before we can name its case. There is nothing in the 
form or meaning of the noun boy which indicates its case ; therefore, 
its case cannot denote its office : but if it is used in a sentence ; as, The 
boy struck the ball, and if the pupil studies the sentence, and learns that 
boy is its subject, then he is able to say that this noun is in the "nom- 
inative case f" that is, the office denotes the case. 

But what is the use of saying even that ? Why not let the pupil 
stop after lie has learned that this noun boy is the subject of the verb 
struck? He cannot learn anything that will help him use or understand 
better this nouu or any other noun, by saying in addition, " and, there- 
fore, it is in the nominative case." It would be the same noun boy, 
spelt in the same way, if it were in the " objective case," — if the sen- 
tence read, The ball struck the boy. 

All this is not true of the possessive form of the noun. The noun 
boy's shows by its form what its office must be, and we can say that it is 
in the possessive case without being at all inconsistent. 

But the possessive is only one use of the noun out of ten uses, and few 
would claim that it is reasonable to burden the subject of nouns with 
the modification of ca.se just to explain this one use, unless it could not 
be explained so well in any other way. 

That this can be done is evident. What more of interest or profit to 
a pupil, can be added after he is taught that a noun in this form denotes 
possession and that possession is a modification of nouns, — a change in 
form to correspond to a change in meaning and use, — just as number is? 

Any teacher who can see any practical benefit to be derived from 
teaching case as a modification of nouns, and prefers to do it, may apply 
to nouns what is said in a subsequent lesson of the case of pronouns. 



LESSON 66. 

The apostrophe and * ('«) is pronounced as a separate 
syllable, unless it can be united in pronunciation with the 
final sound of the word to which it is added ; for example, 
horses is pronounced as two syllables, while dog's is pro- 
nounced as one. 

When nouns in the singular end in a hissing sound, and 
the word which follows begins with the same sound, the 
apostrophe only may be added. This should be done, 



NO UNS— POSSESSION. 149 

however, only when it would make the pronunciation much 
easier, and pleasanter to the ear ; as, For conscience sake, 
for righteousness sake, Achilles selfishness. 

Often inharmonious combinations of this kind may be 
avoided by using of, property of, belonging to, or some 
other expression equivalent in meaning to the possessive 
sign ; as, The speeches of Moses, instead of Moses speeches. 

Change the form of each of the following expressions so 
as to retain the idea of possession, and then use them in 
sentences : — 

1. The administration of President Lincoln. 2. Mr. Stebins's 
store. 3. A sword belonging to General Grant. 4. A citizen's 
rights. 5. A convention of teachers. 6. A farm owned by Mr. 
White. 7. The prescription of a physician. 8. John's father-in- 
law's business. 9. The wives of Henry the Eighth. 10. The 
plays of Shakespeare. 

Besides denoting actual possession, the apostrophe and 
s ('s) is used to denote — 

1. The source from 'which a thing" proceeds; as, 
Prof. Sensenigs Algebra. 

2. The suitableness or fitness of a thing ; as, ladies' 
shoes. 

3. Personification ; as, Fortune s smile. 

4. Periods of time associated with certain ideas; 
as, a years interest. 

It should seldom be joined to the names of inanimate 
objects. 

Change the following expressions so that the same mean- 
ing will be expressed by means of the possessive, and state 
to which of the foregoing classes each belongs : — 

1. The work done in a week. 2. The warning given by reason. 
3. Shoes made by James Means. 4. Clothing suitable for men. 
5. Poems written by Milton. 6. Victims of war. 7. A position 
to be filled by a teacher. 8. The wages earned in a month. 



150 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

To denote joint ownership (1) the last of two or more 
connected nouns should have the possessive sign ; as, 
Wanamaker $ Brown s store ; but (2) if each of the 
connected nouns denoting joint ownership is preceded by 
an adjective, or is made emphatic by being placed in con- 
trast or opposition, each should have the possessive sign ; 
as, He is the poor man's, as well as the rich man's friend. 
It was the pastor's, not the people's business. 

To denote separate ownership the sign should be 
suffixed to the name of each owner; as, Webster's and 
Worcester's l dictionary. 

Correct the errors found in the following expressions : — 

1. My brother bought his suit at Wanamaker' s and Brown's 
store. 

2. William's and Mary's reign in England was attended by dis- 
sensions at home and wars abroad. 

3. Lafayette and Washington's dispositions were very different. 

4. Saul was Jonathan as well as David's enemy. 

5. It was the driver and not the conductor's fault. 

6. John and William's reputations at home were exceedingly 
bad. 

7. Nicolay's and Hay's "Abraham Lincoln" is an authentic his- 
tory of the civil war. 

8. Hancock and Meade's conduct at Gettysburg won for them 
lasting fame. 

REVIEW. 
1. How is the possessive sign pronounced ? 2. How may discordant 
sounds be avoided ? Illustrate. 3. What is the origin of the posses- 
sive sign? 4. What beside actual possession is denoted by the posses- 
sive sign? For what is 's used in number? 5. How is the possessive 
sign used with connected nouns to denote joint ownership? to denote 
separate ownership? 

1 When we write Webster 1 s and Worcester's dictionary, the first possessive 
modifies the word dictionary understood ; but if we write Webster's and 
Worcester's dictionaries, both modify the plural noun dictionaries. 



NO UNS— POSSESSION. 1 51 

LESSOR 67. 

What is the difference in meaning between — 

1. The student's rooms, and The students' rooms ? 

2. Jones and Claries store, and Jones's and Clark's store? 

3. The tcotees' den, and The wolf's den? 

4. My brother's horses, and My brothers' horses ? 

5. A father's care, and The care of a father? 

C. The candidates reception, and The reception of the candidate? 
7. My friend s picture, and A picture of my friend f 

The tendency of the possessive sign is to get as near as 
possible to the noun modified ; l hence it is not always suf- 
fixed to the noun denoting possession : as, The child of 
destiny's fate is not always an enviable one ; Conner the 
merchant's store burned. 

REMARKS. 
When the Name of the Thing Possessed Follows. 

1. When an appositive is used with a possessive, and the name 
of the thing possessed follows, the appositive receives the possessive 
sign; as, This is Mr. Wood, the car potter's, house. 

2. This is true even if the appositive is compound ; as, This is 
Mr. Wood, the carpenter and builder's, house. 

1 In the expression somebody else's business, we have a very common ex- 
ample of this tendency of the possessive sign to be attracted to the name 
of the thing possessed. It is often a question whether the word else 
should have the possessive sign when the name of the thing possessed 
does not follow. In other words, should we say, This business is somebody 
else's, or This business is somebody's else. Unquestionably, the latter ex- 
pression is the more reasonable and has the weight of the usage of many 
intelligent people in its favor, but it is doubtful whether the former 
expression can be condemned. It is usage that decides such questions, 
not what ought to be, nor what one prefers. A short search in current 
and standard literature reveals the following: "Some one else's,'"— Mat- 
thews's "Getting on in the World," p. 289, 15th line; "Anybody else's,"— 
H. Martineau's Biographical Sketches, p. 469; "Somebody else's," — 
Dickens's "Christmas Stories,'" p. 280 (Carleton Ed.); "Nobody else's," — 
Dickens's "Sketches of Young Couples," No. 5; "Somebody else's ports," — 
Harper's Magazine, Vol. 65, p. 177. 



152 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

3. If the compound appositive has a modifier of some length, 
the name of the thing possessed must follow the principal noun, 
which also, then, has the possessive sign ; as, This is Mr. Wood's 
house, the carpenter and builder of the village. 

When the Name of the Thing Possessed Does 
Not Follow. 

1. When the name of the thing possessed does not follow the 
name of the possessor, the possessive sign is added to the apposi- 
tive; as, This house is Mr. Wood, the carpenter's, 1 

2. But if the appositive has a modifier of some length, the prin- 
cipal word has the sign ; as, This house is Mr, Wood's, the car- 
penter of the village. 

3. The principal word has the possessive sign also, if the apposi- 
tive is compound ; as, This house is Mr. Wood's, the carpenter 
and builder. 

Correct the errors in the following sentences, and justify 
those uses of the possessive sign which are right : — 

1. This is Putnam's statue, the brave soldier's and patriot's of 
Revolutionary times. 

2. These are John the Baptist's teachings, 

3. I called at Lippincott's, the well-known publisher and book- 
seller's store. 

4. These plays are Shakespeare's, the dramatist. 

5. This resulted from Howard's the philanthropist's efforts. 

6. This sentiment is Lord Bacon, the great forerunner of Locke 
and Newton's. 

7. This shop is Tubal's the blacksmith. 

8. This house is Mr. Seal, the secretary of the American Textile 
Association's. 

9. We stopped at Mr. Hill, the secretary and treasurer's. 
10. We stopped at Mr, Mix the painter and artist's studio. 

1 There is little warrant for the statement that when a common noun 
is in apposition with a possessive proper noun r and the thing possessed 
does not follow, either may take the possessive sign; that is, that we 
may say, " This shop is Tubal, the blacksmith's or This shop is Tubal' s, the 
blacksmith. Certainly the whole field of standard literature does not 
present cases enough to justify the latter. 



THE PARSING OF NOUNS. 153 

Recast the following sentences so as to use the possessive 
sig7i, preserving the meaning : — 

1. The career of Grant, the hero and patriot, ended in honor and 
renown. 

2. The life of Arnold, the traitor, ended in poverty and dis- 
grace. 

3. They brought the head of John the Baptist in a charger. 

4. This is the home of Mr. Pyle, the broker. 

5. The influence of John B. Gough, the distinguished lecturer 
and temperance advocate, is still felt. 

6. I bought my new watch at the store of Stokes, my old friend 
and teacher. 



LESSON 68. 

The Parsing of Nouns. 

Parsing a word consists in giving its classification, 
naming its modifications, and stating its office in the 
sentence. 

The italicized nouns of the following sentence are parsed 
as models to guide in the parsing of other nouns. 

Daniel Boone s career as the pioneer of Kentucky/, seems all the 
more remarkable when we remember his birthplace in the quiet 
haunts of Bucks County, Penna. 

1. Daniel Boone's is a proper noun of the masculine gender, in the 
singular number, and is a possessive modifier of the noun career. 

2. Career 1 is a simple common noun, in the singular number, and is 
the subject of the verb seems. 

3. Pioneer is a simple common noun of the masculine gender, in the 
singular number, and is in apposition with the noun career. 

4. Kentucky is a proper noun, in the singular number, and is the 
principal term of the phrase introduced by the preposition of. 

5. Birthplace is a simple common noun, in the singular number, and 
is the object complement of the verb remember. 

1 Gender need not be mentioned in parsing neuter nouns. 



154 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

Write the parsing of the italicized words in the follow- 
ing fable : l — 

One very stormy day, a poor man came to a rich man's house to beg. 

"Away with you I" said the servants; "do not come here troubling us 
busy people." 

" Then," said the man. " only let me go in and dry my clothes at your 
fire." This, the servants thought, would not cost them anything ; so 
they let him go in. 

The poor man then asked the cook, the most kind-hearted servant of 
all, to let him have sl pan so that he could make some stone-broth. 

"Stone-broth!" said the cook, who thought him a, fool. "I should like 
to see how you can make broth out of a stone;" so he was given a pan. 
The man filled it with water from the pump, and then put into it a stone 
from the road. "But you must have some salt," said the cook; and he 
was given some salt and some peas, some mint and some thyme; and at 
last she brought him all the scraps of meat she could find, so that the 
poor man's stone-broth became a good dinner. 



LESSON 69. 
Errors in the Use of Nouns. 

Besides the mistakes likely to be made in forming the 
possessives and plurals of nouns, errors in their use are 
confined almost exclusively to those caused by misunder- 
standing their meanings. The following are a few exam- 
ples : — 

1. The words scholar, pupil, and student are often used as if they 
meant exactly the same. A scholar is a learned person ; a pupil is 
a learner of any kind ; a student is a diligent learner. 

2. The words couple and pair are often misused. Couple means 
two things united by law or nature. Pair generally means two 
things alike, and used for the same purpose. We should not 
say u a pair of boys" nor "a couple of apples." 

3. Character is often used when reputation is meant. A person's 

1 This fable and others like it may be made the basis of a composition 
exercise. Let the pupil reproduce the story in his own words entirely 
from memory. 



ERRORS IN THE USE OF NOUNS. 155 

character is what he really is at heart, but his reputation is what 
people believe him to be. A man's character never can be injured 
by others, his reputation often is. 

4. The word individual should not be used for the word person, 
except when the idea of oneness is to be emphasized. We should 
say "a selfish person," not "a selfish individual" 

5. Comrade and companion do not mean quite the same. A 
comrade is one associated with another or others in war or similar 
dangerous circumstances ; a companion is one associated with an- 
other in ordinary circumstances. 

6. A habit belongs to one person ; a custom to society. 

7. A crime is a violation of man's laws; a sin is a violation of 
God's laws; a vice is long-continued wrong-do'.ng of any kind. 
Sins and crimes often become vices. 

8. A robber is one who breaks in and steals, using violence if he 
cannot do it without ; a thief steals without molesting. 

9. Verbs should not be used as nouns ; as, "On the make," "a 
big steal," "a good catch." The habit of using such phrases as 
these and all other slang expressions, is one easily acquired, and 
very damaging to the purity of one's speech, and, therefore, to the 
purity, also, of his thought ; for speech and thought are comple- 
ments of each other. Impure and inaccurate speech must convey 
impure and inaccurate thought, which is one of the greatest hin- 
drances to advancement in education. 

10. A catalogue is a list accompanied by explanations. 

11. Balance is a term applied to what is added to one side of an 
account to make both sides even. 

12. The word party should not be used for the word person or 
persons except in legal language. We should not say "the con- 
tracting parties ' ' when speaking of a newly-married couple. 

13. Self-confidence is confidence in one's own powers which sus- 
tains. Self-conceit is a vain and odious display of self-confidence. 

14. A storm is a violent disturbance of the atmosphere accom- 
panied by wind, rain, etc. A mere fall of rain is not a storm. A 
shower is a fall of rain of short duration, and may become a storm 
if accompanied by strong wind, lightning, etc. A shower should 
not be called a gust, 

15. A proposition is something presented for discussion or 
thought ; a proposal is an offer. 



156 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

16. A discovery is a name applied to the finding out of that 
which existed before, but was hidden. An invention is the mailing 
of that which did not exist before. 

17. There is properly no such word as banister. Balustrade is 
the proper name for the fence-like enclosure of an altar, staircase, 
etc. , while baluster names each of the pieces that support the top- 
rail of the balustrade. 

18. Humanitarian should not be used to mean a humane person. 
A humanitarian is one who denies the divinity of Christ. 

19. Localisms or terms used only in a certain locality should be 
avoided. Gust is a localism for shower ; rock, for a stone ; bliclcy or 
kettle, for small tin pail; suits, for dried apples; grip, for an un- 
bound sheaf; the homesick, for homesickness. 

Correct the errors found in the following sentences. 
Write out the corrections in full on slate, blackboard, or 
paper. Make the corrections no longer than necessary, 
and be careful to write just what you mean : — 

1. I met a party once who said he expected to spend the balance 
of his life, if need be, in making a discovery by means of which the 
wasted power of Niagara Falls could be utilized. 

2. He talked to me a couple of hours about his favorite project, 
and finally made me a very tempting proposition to become his 
partner. 

3. This man exhibited a great deal of self-confidence, and I 
learned afterward that it was his custom to impress his import- 
ance on every strange individual he met. 

4. No one ought to risk having his character ruined by becoming 
the comrade of a bad man. 

5. One of my scholars told me that a robber had entered his 
father's office while his father was temporarily absent, and finding 
the safe open, had stolen a small sum of money. 

6. This act of the robber was the last of a long catalogue of vices, 
which are the results of intemperance. 

7. I consider Henry Bergh the greatest humanitarian of the age, 
on account of his personal devotion to the relief of cruelly-treated 
animals. 

8. Sliding down the banister was the practice which produced, by 
a well-defined process oP evolution, the modern toboggan slide. 



PARTS OF SPEECH— PRONOUNS. 157 

9. A mother's affection for her children often leads to the most 
self-sacrificing acts. 

Note. — By having the pupils make note of the errors they hear in 
the use of nouns, this exercise may be profitably extended. All errors 
should be studied and discussed in class. 



LESSON 70. 

PRONOUNS. 

What is a pronoun ? Give the two principal reasons 
for their use. What is an antecedent ? (See Lesson 4.) 
There are four kinds of pronouns : — 

1. A personal pronoun is one which represents by- 
its form (1) the speaker, (2) the one spoken to, or (3) 
the one spoken of; as, I am he. 

2. A relative pronoun. (See Lesson 41.) 

3. An interrogative pronoun is one used to ask a 
question ; as, Who was the first blacksmith f 

4. An adjective pronoun is a definitive adjective 
used as a noun ; as, This is a mineral. 

Only definitive adjectives (see Lesson 100) become pro- 
nouns. A descriptive adjective has so much meaning in 
it, that when it stands for a noun, it becomes a real name- 
word — a noun ; as, The faithful will be reivarded. 

Point out the different hinds of pronouns in the folloiv- 
ing sentences : — 

1 . I shall expect to see you at my house to-morrow. 

2. I myself told him. 

3. What doest thou here, Elijah? 

4. The man who bought it, was blind. 

5. Is this the place to which you have brought me ? Is this my 
reward for all that I have suifered in your behalf? 

6. Who is it that sighs for the days that are gone ? 



158 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

Personal Pronouns. 

Personal pronouns have four modifications ; namely, 
person, number, gender, and case. 

Definition. — Person is that modification of a pro- 
noun which denotes the speaker, the one spoken to, 
or the one spoken of. 

I, representing the speaker, is of the first person. 
Thou and you, representing the one spoken to, are of 
the second person. He, she, and it, representing the 
person or thing spoken of, are of the third person. 

A pronoun should have the same gender and number as 

its antecedent ; as, Fred lost his ball. 

Here Fred, the antecedent, is in the masculine gender and singular 
number; hence, his the pronoun is also in the masculine gender and 
singular number. 

Give the person and number of each pronoun in the fol- 
loiving list, and the gender, if it has any : — 



I, 


we, 


she, 


thee, 


their, 


theirs, 


himself, 


it, 


me, 


thy, 


they, 


mine, 


myself, 


yourself, 


us, 


™y, 


you, 


thou, 


them, 


thyself, 


ourselves, 


he, 


his, 


him, 


your, 


thine, 


herself, 


themselves. 


its, 


her, 


hers, 


itself, 


yours, 












LESSON 71 


• 










Case of 


Pronouns. 





Definition. — Case is that modification of the per- 
sonal pronoun (and of the pronoun who) which denotes 
its use in a sentence ; as, I am he. 

Here 7 is the subject, and is said to be in the nominative case; while 
he is the subjective complement, and is also said to be in the nomina- 
tive case. 



PRONOUNS— CASE. 159 

Only personal pronouns and the pronoun ivho (whether relative or 
interrogative) have case. Other pronouns, like nouns, have no change 
in form to designate a change in their meaning or use, and hence have 
no case. • 

There are three cases in English. Some languages have 
six. Any language has as many cases as it has forms of 
nouns and pronouns corresponding to different uses. The 
English has as many uses of nouns and pronouns as other 
languages, but has only three forms corresponding to these 
uses. These forms are all found in pronouns. Hence, 
English has but three cases, and case belongs only to 
pronouns. (See Lesson 64.) 

The names of the cases are nominative, possessive, 
and objective. 

A pronoun is in the nominative case, 

1. When used independently; as, He being sick, ive 
could not come. 

2. When used as the subject of a verb; as, We 
could not come. 

A pronoun is in the objective case, 

1. When used as object complement; as, John saw 
me. 

2. When used as the principal term of a preposi- 
tional phrase ; as, Come unto me. 

A pronoun used as subjective complement or as 
objective complement is in the same case as the -word 
to which it belongs. 

i" am he. Here he is in the nominative case, because it belongs 
to I. 

For me to be him is Impossible. Here him is in the objective 
case, because it belongs to me. 

When the complement belongs to a noun, it will have the case a 
pronoun used instead of the noun would have ; as John is he. 



160 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

Its being he should make no difference. The possessive its is 
here used idiomatically for it, the nominative form, to prevent am- 
biguity. In such eases, the subjective complement, although be- 
longing to a possessive, is in the nominative case. 

Definition. — Declining' a pronoun is arranging its 
cases in a regular order in both numbers. 

Declension of Pronouns. 

THE PERSONAL PEONOUN. 

1. Of the First Person. 

Singular. Plural. 

Nominative. I, we. 

Possessive, my or mine, our or ours. 

Objective. me, us. 

2. Of the Second Person. 
Common. Old. 

Sing, and Plu. Sing. Plu. 

Nom. you. Nom. thou, ye or you. 

Poss. your or yours, Poss. thy or thine, your or yours. 

Obj. you. Obj. thee, you. 



3. Of the Third Person. 
Masculine. Feminine. Neuter. 

Sing. Plu. ! Sing. Plu. 

Nom. he, they. J she, they. 



Poss. his, their or 

theirs. 
Obj. him, them. 



their or 
theirs, 
her, them. 



Sing. Plu. 
it, they, 

its, their or 

theirs, 
it, them. 



Declension of the Relative and Interrogative Pro- 
noun who. 

Sing, and Plu. 
Nom. who. 
Poss. whose. 
Obj. whom. 



PRONOUNS— PECULIARITIES. 161 

REMARKS. 
To the Teacher. — These remarks should be made the subject of one 
or more separate lessons, according to the ability of the class. With the 
less advanced classes it may be desirable to omit some of them. 

1. In forming the possessive of personal pronouns, the apostrophe is 
not used; but in adjective pronouns, as will be seen in a succeeding 
lesson, it is sometimes used. 

2. A possessive 1 is often made emphatic by being followed by the 
adjective own; as, This is my own book. 

3. Each personal pronoun lias two forms in the possessive case, both 
in the singular and in the plural. The first is used when the name of 
the thing possessed immediately follows; the second when the name of 
the thing possessed is not given ; as, (1) My hat is torn; (2) Mine is 
torn. Formerly, the second was also used when the name of the thing 
expressed began with a vowel ; as, If thine eye offend thee, pluck it out; 
but this use is now obsolete. 

4. Compound personal pronouns are formed by suffixing -self to some 
form of the simple personal pronouns. They are myself (sometimes 
ourself 2 ), of the first person; thyself or yourself, of the second person; 
and himself, herself, and itself, of the third person. Their plurals are 
formed by changing/ to ve and suffixing s. They have number and 
gender, but not case ; hence they are not declined. 

5. Individual editors, rulers, and others often refer to themselves by 
the pronoun we instead of I. This practice arose from the desire to 
make the public feel that certain statements were based on more than 
the speaker's authority, the ruler speaking as the representative of 
those associated with him in the government, and the editor speaking 
as the representative of those agreeing with him in opinion. 

1 Its, the possessive singular of the neuter it, is of modern origin. The 
t in it (Anglo-Saxon hit) was originally a suffix to denote neuter gender. 
The regular possessive was formed by dropping t and suffixing s instead 
(hi{t)s = his). This possessive, his, was in general use previous to the 17th 
century. During the 17th century people began to lose sight of the sig- 
nificance of the neuter suffix t, and to look upon it as a part of the orig- 
inal word. They then formed the possessive without dropping the t, — its. 

In the translation of the Bible (King James' Version, 1611) its is not 
found, except once (by mistake it is thought); and in the writings of 
Shakespeare and Milton it occurs rarely. 

2 The use of ourself as the plural of the editorial we should be discour- 
aged. When a plural personal pronoun is made compound the suffix 
should also be plural. 

11 



162 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

6. You, the personal pronoun of the second person, is the plural of 
thou, but its use as a singular has now become practically universal. To 
find the origin of this change, we must go back previous to the 16th 
century, when it became common for rulers to use the plural we in 
speaking of themselves. Following this example, then, it was both 
natural and courteous for the subject to us? the plural in speaking to 
his sovereign. Afterward all superiors, whether sovereign or nobles, 
were addressed as you; and in the latter part of the 16th century and 
in the beginning of the 17th this was a common practice. Thou was 
used in addressing inferiors, and you, in addressing superiors. As the 
world grew to recognize the equality of mankind, the practice of speak- 
ing to all by means of the more courteous you, also grew, until now it 
has entirely supplanted thou. 

It is interesting to notice, however, that throughout the entire his- 
tory of this change, even when "to thou" a person was considered the 
grossest insult, thou continued to be used as a term of the highest 
respect and reverence in addressing the Deity. 

It is interesting to notice, too, the use of thee by members of the So- 
ciety of Friends. In the 17th century, George Fox and his followers 
attempted to re-establish the use of thou. They succeeded only with 
their own sect, among whom the objective thee has unfortunately come 
to be used instead of the nominative thou. 

You is also an objective, the old nominative is ye; and the use of 
thee for thou has its' counterpart in the use of you for ye. 

7. The expressions meseems, methinks (Anglo-Saxon, me thynkth), and 
the like, which are now obsolete except in poetry, are unusual in their 
construction. The pronoun me in these expressions is an Anglo-Saxon 
dative, and the verb is used impersonally ; that is, without a subject. 
The literal equivalents or translations of these expressions, as nearly 
as they can be made in current English, are It thinks to me, It seems io 
me, the latter being in common use, and having entirely supplanted 
meseems. It is impossible to parse and analyze such expressions accord- 
ing to the formulas for ordinary expressions. They can simply be ex- 
plained as to their construction and history. 

8. The neuter personal pronoun it is regularly used as a substitute 
(1) for a neuter noun ; (2) for some phrase or clause used as a noun ; 
as, (1 ) He took it, (2) It is easy to find fault. 

9. // is also used indefinitely as the subject of an impersonal verb ; 
as, It snows. 

Here the verb expresses a natural phenomenon, and in another lan- 
guage would have no subject. There is no person or thing about which 



PR ONO UNS—PECULIA RITIES. 163 

the verb expresses its action, being, or state ; and yet the genius of the 
language requires a subject. The pronoun does not stand for something 
which does the snowing, but is used indefinitely. 

10. The pronoun it is also used to refer to a general state or condition 
of affairs, which cannot be represented by any antecedent; as, Think 
of me when it shall be well ivith thee. 

11. The pronoun it is often used to refer to children, and certain ani- 
mals (generally the smaller and less important animals) whose sex is 
not a prominent characteristic ; as, The child lost its toy. The mouse 
ran into its hole. 

12. The masculine pronoun is used to refer to an antecedent that 
names persons of both sexes ; l Every pupil knew his lesson. 

13. The masculine pronoun is often used to refer to the names of 
animals of either sex, when the animals are noted for the grosser qual- 
ities, such as fierceness, size, strength, etc. When they are noted for the 
finer qualities, such as beauty, grace, gentleness, and the like, the feminine 
pronoun is used. Ex. — The beaver cut his timber with patient teeth that 
day. The owl doth to the moon complain of such as molest her ancient 
solitary reign. 

14. Personal pronouns are frequently used in the personification of 
inanimate objects. 

Personification consists in ascribing personality and intelligence to 
inanimate objects or to dumb animals. The masculine or feminine 
pronoun is used according as the grosser or finer qualities of the thing 
personified are prominent ; as, — 

" Winter came ; the wind was his whip ; 
One choppy finger was on his lip : 
He had torn the cataracts from the hills, 
And they clanked at his girdle like manacles/' 

' There is need in English of a pronoun that in the singular number 
will represent either sex. Attempts have been made from time to time 
to furnish such a pronoun, the one most favorably received being one 
suggested by Judge Converse of Pennsylvania. His word is thon, a 
contraction of that and one (Nom. thon, Poss. thons, Obj. thon). It has 
no plural, since the plural they, their or theirs, them, represents both 
sexes. When suggested, in 1885, the word was very favorably received 
by such scholars as Prof. March of Lafayette College, Prof. Norton of 
Harvard, Prof. Montague of Amherst, and other philologists of note. 

Prof. March says, " What Mr. Converse says of the want of such a 
pronoun is all good, and he forms his thon very simply. I do not know 
that any other vocable would have so good a chance for this vacancy." 



164 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

LESSON 73. 

Fill the following blanks ivith personal pronouns, giving 
reasons for your choice : — 

1. The wild hawk stood with down on beak, 

And stared, with foot on prey. 

2. The tree-toad is nocturnal in habits. By day re- 
mains motionless and concealed ; by night is as alert and act- 
ive as the owl. 

3. For the time being the hound had but one sense ; whole 

soul was concentrated in nose. 

4. time has laid hand 

Upon my heart, gently, not smiting , 

But as a harper lays open palm 

Upon harp, to deaden vibrations. 

5. The lion is not so fierce as they paint . 

6. The bee carries the antidote to own poison. 

7. never rains but pours. 

8. How do you like at your new home? 

9. is good to be children sometimes. 

10. Bright-eyed Fancy, hovering o'er, 

Scatters from pictured urn 

Thoughts that breathe and words that burn. 

11. The miller, attracted by the brilliancy of the light, sees no 
danger and burns wings in the flame. 

12. The squirrel, poising on the drift 

Erect, alert, broad gray tail 

Set to the north wind like a sail. 

13. The bison, or buffalo, has been driven from former 

haunts and pastures, and is fast becoming extinct. 

14. Have every pupil write reason for inserting a masculine, 

feminine, or neuter pronoun in these blanks. 

1 5. The ostrich is a bird, but cannot fly. 

16. The bear hugged the boiling kettle, and burnt . 

17. Life mocks the idle hate of arch-enemy, Death. 

18. We ask every American citizen to do part towards secur- 
ing an international copyright law to protect authors and publishers. 

19. The elophant has so high an opinion of the importance of 



PRONOUNS— RELATIVE. 165 

trunk that when attacked by a tiger or exposed to other dan- 
gers, carries high in the air. 

20. Spring has donned mantle of green, 

And quickened all life with breath. 

21 . It seems as if the fox must have sowed broadcast as 

went along. 

22. Truth will get well, if is run over by a locomotive, but 

error dies of lockjaw from a scratch on the finger. 

Write sentences in which the following named things 
shall be personified, and indicate the gender by using mas- 
culine or feminine personal pronouns : — 

sun, wind, night, nature, fortune, 

war, sleep, death, money, freedom, 

ship, river, ocean, winter, jealousy, 

time, moon, crime, famine, America. 



LESSON 73. 

Relative Pronouns. 

The relative pronouns are tvho, which, what, that, and 
sometimes as and but. 

Remarks. — 1. By adding -ever and -soever to who, which, and 
what, compound relative pronouns are formed ; as, whoever, whoso- 
ever, whichever, etc. 

2. As and but are considered relative pronouns in constructions 
like "the following : — 

( 1 ) As many as came were accommodated. The second as is the sub- 
ject of came. Its antecedent is many, to which it connects the adjective 
clause os came. 

(2) There's not a fireside hilt has one vacant chair. But is here the 
subject of has. Its antecedent is fireside, to which it connects the adjec- 
tive clause has one vacant chair. 

But may be called a negative relative pronoun, because it always fol- 
lows a negative expression of some kind, and has a negative influence 
on the meaning of its verb. If some other relative were used in its 
place, that for instance, the word not would have to be supplied to mod- 
ify the verb — that has not one vacant chair. 



166 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

3. The relative who refers to persons and animals, 1 which to ani- 
mals and things, and what to things only ; while that, as, and but 
are in no way restricted in their reference. 

4. The antecedent of what is usually omitted ; as, He did what 
was right Here the antecedent of what is the understood object 
complement of did. 

The antecedent of what is expressed when it immediately follows 
that pronoun ; as, What boolcs he has, are good. 

In poetry the antecedent of who is sometimes omitted ; as, Who 
steals my purse, steals trash. 

5. The antecedent of which may be a clause ; as, Mr. Randall 
has again placed the country under obligations to him, which is a 
ivay he has. 

6. Who is the only relative pronoun that is declined. 

Singular and Plural. 
Nom. who. Poss. whose. Obj. whom. 

7. Whose is also used as a possessive of which, but the phrase of 
which is considered better. 

8. The relative pronoun which may become an adjective, but, as 
such, often retains its connective force ; as, The prisoner wrote a 
letter to the plaintiff, which letter I now propose to read. 

Write sentences illustrating the use of all the relative 
pronouns, iyicluding as, but, and the compound rel- 
ative pronouns. 

Use whose and whom in sentences, as relative pronouns. 

Use what as a relative pronoun, with its antecedent 
expressed. 

Use who as a relative pronoun, with its antecedent 
omitted. 

1 Any one who has carefully examined the hest literature of the pres- 
ent — both periodical and book literature— must have noticed the grow- 
ing tendency of authors to use voho in reference to animals ; as, " A lion 
who, etc.," " A dog who, etc."— Bayard Taylor. " Crows who, etc.," 
" The hound who, etc." — John Burroughs. "The birds who, etc." — At- 
lantic Monthly. "The dog who, etc." — Whittier. "The elephant who, 
etc." — Browning. Similar examples are numerous in almost any writer 
of the present. 



PRONO XJNS—INTERROGA TTVE. 1 67 

Write a sentence in which the antecedent of a relative 
pronoun shall be a clause. 

Write a sentence using which both as an adjective and 
a connective. 



LESSON 74. 

Interrogative Pronouns. 

The interrogative pronouns are who, which, what, and 
their compounds. They are used in asking questions 
directly or indirectly. 

It is sometimes difficult to distinguish the indirect inter- 
rogative pronoun from the relative pronoun. 

What did he say f In this sentence, what is an interrogative pronoun 
used to ask a question directly. 

/ cannot tell you what he said. Here what is an indirect interrogative 
pronoun. What he said refers to a question, but does not directly ask one. 

In the sentence lean show you what he did, what is a relative pronoun. 
What he did is here an adjective clause describing (not naming) the 
object complement of can show. This would be true even if this sen- 
tence were an answer to the question, Can you show me what he did ? for 
in this question, can is the interrogative word, and what he did is an 
adjective clause. 

Point out the relative and interrogative pronouns in the 

following sentences : — 

1. I do not know what to think of his absence. 

2. What can I do for you ? 

3. I know whose fault it was. 

4. He did what was forbidden. 

5. I know who did it. 

6. I did not hear what .you said. 

7. He was in doubt about which he should take. 

8. Whom the gods would destroy they first make mad. 

9. I do not know to whom you had better apply. 

10. Nobody can conjecture to whom the money belongs. 

11. Whatever reasonable request you make, I shall grant. 

12. Take whichever you please. 



168 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

Adjective Pronouns. 

Point out the adjective pronouns in the following sen- 
tences : — 

1. I do not need any, but you need several. 

2. Few heard it, and none saw it. 

3. Both tried, but neither succeeded. 

4. Of such is the kingdom of heaven. 

5. The one shall be taken, and the other left. 

6. Much is at stake, and many are depending on you. 

7. Little can be done now. 

8. The former succeeded, but the latter failed. 

9. All must die. 

10. Another has been chosen. 

11. Either will do. 

REMARKS. 

1. Adjective pronouns have no declension. 

2. One and other have plurals formed like the plurals of nouns by 
suffixing s to the singular; as, Keep the good ones, and discard the 
others. They also have possessive forms in both numbers, like those 
of nouns ; as, One's duty can never interfere ivith others 9 rights. 

3. Another has no plural, but has a possessive form in the singular; 
as, Another's rights cannot interfere with yours. 

4. This and that have plural forms, these and those, but have no pos- 
sessive forms; as, These are my jewels. Those that seek me early shall 
find me. 

5. Both, many, and several are always plural. 

6. Each, either, neither, and much are always singular. 

7. Other adjective pronouns are generally either singular or plural. 



LESSON 75. 

The Parsing of Pronouns. 

The italicized pronouns in the following sentence are. 

parsed as models to guide in the parsing of other pronouns : J 

Sentence. — A thief is one who takes what does not belong to Mm. 

1 As an exercise in parsing pronouns the teacher may make selections 
from the extracts beginning on page 106. Parse also the pronouns in 
the sentences given under each of the kinds of pronouns. 



PRONOUNS— ERRORS. 169 

1. One is an adjective pronoun of either gender, in the singular num- 
ber", and is used as the subjective complement of the verb is. 

2. Who is a relative pronoun agreeing with its antecedent one in either 
gender and singular number. It is in the nominative case, and is the 
subject of the verb takes. It connects the adjective clause, who takes, 
with the word one, which the- clause modifies. 

3. What is a relative pronoun of the neuter gender and singular num- 
ber. It is used as the subject of the verb takes, and connects the adjec- 
tive clause, what does not, etc., to the understood object complement of 
takes. 

4. Him is a personal pronoun agreeing with its antecedent thief in the 
singular number. It is in the ma'sculine gender, because its antecedent 
thief may be either masculine or feminine. (See Lesson 71, Remark 
12.) It is in the objective case, being governed by the preposition to. 



LESSON 76. 

Errors in the Use of Pronouns. 

1. The objective form of the pronoun is often used incorrectly 
for the nominative form, and the nominative form for the objective ; 
as, It is me. Will you excuse Helen and I? 

In the first sentence me should be i, because it is attribute comple- 
ment. In the second sentence / should be me, because it is object com- 
plement. 

2. Pleonasm should not be used in ordinary composition or in 
conversation, as it leads to the unnecessary use of pronouns. We 
should not say, John he has my ball, but John has my ball. 

3. Pronouns should not be used so that the reference to their 
antecedents is not clear. 

He told his father that his coat was torn. Here it is not clear whether 
the second his refers to the speaker or the father. He said to his father, 
" Your coat is torn," removes the doubt. 

Sentences in which the reference to the antecedent is not clear, may 
be corrected — 

(1) By repeating the noun. 

(2) By remodeling the sentence. 

(3) By using the direct quotation instead of the indirect. 

4. The pronoun them should not be used for the adjective those. 



170 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

We should not say, Hand me them scissors, but Hand me those 
scissors. 

5. The personal pronoun should agree with its antecedent in gen- 
der and number ; as, Every man should, vote according to his own 
judgment, not, Every man ^should vote according to their own 
judgment. 

6. What is sometimes used for the conjunction that ; as in, I do 
not know but what I shall return to-morrow. I do not know but 
that I shall return to-morrow, is the correct form. 

7. The antecedent of what should seldom be expressed. When 
it is expressed, it should stand immediately after what. Which, and 
not what, should be used when the antecedent must be expressed. 

He asked for that what he wanted. Here the antecedent should be 
omitted. The sentence should be, He asked for what he wanted. 

He wants the book what you have. Here ivhich should be used instead 
of ivhat. 

What clothes he has are good is correct. 

8. To avoid ambiguity, a relative pronoun should stand near its 
antecedent. l If we say, A portrait of Cromwell hung behind the 
door, ivhich was painted by West, the adjective clause seems to 
modify door. A portrait of Cromwell, which was painted by West, 
hung behind, the door, is the correct form. 

9. Connected adjective clauses modifying the same word should 
be introduced by the same relative pronoun. The man that was 
here yesterday, and who tried to sell us a, lottery ticket, has been 
arrested, should be, The man who was here yesterday, and who 
tried to sell us a lottery ticket, has been arrested. 

Correct the errors in the following sentences, and write 
your reasons : — 

Model. — Who did you call? The nominative form who is here used 
instead of the objective form ichom, which should be used, because it is 
the object complement of did call. 

1. The fox-hound is a dog that hunts by the scent, and whom it 
is very difficult for certain kinds of game to escape. 

2. I would like to see the book what has them nice pictures in. 

1 The relative clause may sometimes stand before its antecedent; as, 
Whom ye ignorantly worship, him declare I unto you. 



PRONOUNS— ERRORS. 171 

3. A silk umbrella was taken from the rack by a gentleman, 
which had an ivory head. 

4. Whom do men say that I am ? 

5. He that honoreth me. I will honor. 

6. Bob, he took Jo's sled ; and Jo, he, in trying to get it, fell, 
and hurt himself. 

7. If parents would make their children physically and morally 
strong, they must see to it that their exercise and rest be not inter- 
fered with, and that their commands be always obeyed. 

8. Who did he allude to in them remarks? 

9. I do not know but what I'll go to the city to-morrow. 

JO. The men which are most respected, and who do the most 
good in the world, are those who have the most to do and the least 
to say. 

1 1 . He sat down on a chair near the wall, which had a broken 
back. 

12. William's father failed in business before he was ten years 
old. 

13. Let me see them fish-hooks what you bought yesterday. 



LESSON 77. 
Errors in the Use of Pronouns (continued). 

10. The relative pronoun which should not refer to persons, and 
what should refer neither to persons nor animals. We should not 
say, The man which was here, etc. , or The man what was here, 
etc., but The man who was here, or The man that was here, etc. 

11. The relative pronoun that 1 is preferred to the other relative 
pronouns in the following instances : — 

(1) When the antecedent is compound, and names both persons 
and things ; as, The man and the horse that were injured, died. 

(2) When the antecedent is the neuter pronoun it; as, It was 
not Benjamin that put the cup in the sack. 

1 Adjective clauses introduced by that, are always restrictive, but re- 
strictive adjective clauses may be introduced by otber relative pronouns 
also. 



172 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

(3) When the antecedent is the interrogative pronoun who ; as, 
Who that saw it could resist ? 

(4) When same, very, all, and adjectives in the superlative degree 
are used either as antecedents or as modifiers of the antecedents ; 
as, This is the very house that was robbed. This is the tallest 
tree that grows here. 

12. Adjective clauses not restrictive should be introduced by who 
or which ; as, Bread, tvhich is the staff of life, is made of wheat. 
To use that instead of which, in this sentence, would make the ad- 
jective clause restrictive, and thus spoil the meaning of the sen- 
tence. 

13. When this and that and their plurals these and those are used 
in contrasting two things previously mentioned, this and these must 
be used so as to refer to the last mentioned ; as, Though time and 
money are said to be equivalents, men do not often use them alike: 
this they often hoard, while that they always squander. In this 
sentence, this they often hoard, refers to money, — the last men- 
tioned. 

14. When the one and the other are used in contrasting two things 
previously mentioned, the one must be used so as to refer to the first 
mentioned ; as, Knowledge and. Wisdom, though twins, are very 
different: the one is proud that he has learned so much, the other 
is humble that he knows no more. 

15. To prevent ambiguity a possessive noun or pronoun should 
sometimes be used before a participle as its assumed subject ; as, 
M.y going will determine the matter. This means that my depart- 
ure will determine the matter. If the nominative form /were used 
instead of my, it would mean that /determined it. 

Correct the errors in the folloiving sentences, and write 
your reasons: — 

1. Be careful in using the words commence and begin: this 
should generally be followed by the participle ; that by the infin- 
itive. 

2. That is the tallest tree which I ever saw. 

3. Printing, that was first introduced into England by Caxton, 
has become the great vital agent of modern civilization. 

4. There is no hope of him recovering. 

5. The hunters and their dogs, which were sleeping by the fire, 



PRONO UNS— ERRORS. 1 73 

were aroused by the angry growls of the wild beast, who had crept 
up to within a few rods of them. 

6. It is not a question of compromising with evil which we are 
discussing. 

7. Temperance and abstinence differ in meaning: the one de- 
notes total disuse of a hurtful thing ; the other, moderate indul- 
gence in its use. 

8. Who is there who, having reformed, mourns the loss of pleas- 
ure derived from wrong-doing ? 

9. Of the men what went with Stanley on his expedition into 
the heart of Africa, all who disobeyed his commands to abstain 
from the use of intoxicants, died of the fever. 

1 0. If you would become a scholar, it is not genius which you 
need, but diligence. 

11. This is the only store in town which gives a present to each 
purchaser. 

12. All the means that grace display which drew the wondrous 
plan. 

1 3. Asbestos, that is a mineral, is often made into fire-proof gar- 
ments. 



LESSON 78. 

Divide this lesson, if it is too long. 

Correct the errors in the following sentences, and write 
your reasons. Some of these sentences are correct, and 
some have errors unlike any explained in the previous les- 
sons ; but these the pupil will be able to correct, if he has 
studied the subject of pronouns thoroughly : — 

1. Him and me slept together last night. 

2. There is no man's character which when it is put to the test 
of a tempestuous life-voyage, we do not find flaws in it. 

3. This is the same man that called here yesterday. 

4. John is industrious, without which no one can succeed. 

5. Him being a teacher did not prevent the report spreading. 

6. The seed has become a large tree which was planted. 

7. He placed his hat in a chair behind me ; and when I went to 
sit down in it, I crushed it. 



174 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

8. Many do not understand the difference in the meaning of 
character and reputation : the one denotes what we are thought to 
be; the other, what we are. 

9. The facts are such that when produced will astonish the 
public. 

1 0. I met a man yesterday who I took to be your brother. 
1J. What did you do with them papers what I left here. 

12. The fire it broke out while we were at dinner, and as soon as 
we smelt the smoke, mother she ran for water, while father and me 
we tore up the carpet from one side of the room and tried to smother 
the flames with it. 

13. I don't know but what he behaves himself as well as many 
of them who have had greater social advantages than him. 

14. The mastodon, that is now extinct, is probably one of the 
largest animals that ever lived on the earth. 

1 5. It is not always the brightest boy who makes the most suc- 
cessful man. 

16. We sell suits for men that cost as low as seven dollars. 

17. Who did .you say you saw? 

18. Jack Waffle started from this village [Richfield Springs, N. 
Y.] with a load of timber for Springfield ; and when about three 
miles from the village, lightning knocked down one of his horses 
and killed himself. The horse finally got up, and the horses then 
took the team to Waffle's father's home. 

How many errors that do not belong to pronouns are found in this 
newspaper extract? 

19. He told me he wanted to buy a horse; so I took him down 
to the stable to see mine, and after talking with him a while about 
his superior qualities, I told the ostler to put the saddle on him, and 
then I told him to mount him and try his gait. 

20. He is the very man whom I want to see. 

21. Water that is composed of oxygen and hydrogen is necessary 
to life. 

22. We should love them that love us. 

23. He does not read what books he has. 

24. The horses took fright at some children and their team of 
pet goats who were racing along on the sidewalk. 

25. He placed the muzzle of his gun close to the enraged ani- 
mal's head, and every spark of life was extinguished by its discharge. 



PRONOUNS— ERRORS. 175 

26. Who do you suppose the culprit to be ? 

27. Alexander the Great had a desire for conquest which could 
not be gratified. 

2(S. Handle them boxes with eare ; they contain glass. 

29. It was me which made the assertion. 

30. T am one of those who cannot believe what I do not see. 

31. He didn't notice any one except you and I. 

32. My neck is that sore I can hardly turn my head. 

33. There is no one but what ought to know good from evil. 

34. You may have ourn, and we'll take yourn. 

35. If a person would hold their breath long, they would die. 

36. He is a much taller man than what I supposed. 

37. Between you and I, I think him changing his business was a 
great mistake. 

38. The house stands at the foot of a little hill, which is four 
stories high. 

39. He has already been paid more than what he bargained for. 

40. Who did you ask for, and who did you see? 

41. Avoid extremes ; and shun the fault of such 
Who still are pleased too little or too much. 



LESSON 79. 

Fill the blanks in the following sentences with suitable 
pronouns, giving reasons for your choice : — 

1. Who ■ knew the circumstances could withhold sym- 
pathy? 

2. All things — — live, must die. 

3. The gentleman owns this farm is my brother. 

4. Nobody deserves more credit for eiforts to do right 

than -, 

Supply a relative pronoun that will refer to a person. 

5. -- was she talking about? 

6. I did not think of — — being . 

7. He is not the man he appears to be. 

8. Some of the girls didn't like having the front seats. 

9. It is not always the most worthy gets the highest praise. 



176 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

10. Now, I want every man to do duty, and I have little 

doubt but will, if will attend carefully to the direc- 
tions about to be given. 

11. His uncle and attend the same church. 

Supply a relative pronoun that will refer to a person. 

12. do you want to see? 

13. Don't you remember coming into your room that morning? 

14. Elephants are the largest animals live on land. 

15. Rings, are now worn on the fingers and in the ears, were 

formerly worn in the nose. 

10. The fur warms a monarch, warmed a bear. 

17. ■ conscience dictates to be done, 

Or warns me not to do, 

teach me more than hell to shun, 

more than heaven pursue. 

1 8. Although the wise have many advantages over the ignorant, 
are not always miserable nor are — — always happy. 



LESSON 80. 

VERBS. 

In Lesson 4 we learned that a verb is a word that 
asserts action, being, or condition. 

Verbs are classified (1) according to their meaning, and 
(2) according to their form. 

1. According- to Meaning. 
Stanley found Livingstone. If we were to say simply, 
Stanley found, the meaning of this expression would be 
incomplete. The verb found must be followed by the 
name of the object which receives the action. By means 
of the verb found the action "passes over" from the sub- 
ject Stanley, the doer of the action, to the word Living- 
stone, the receiver of the action. This kind of verb is 
called a transitive verb, because the word transitive means 



VERBS— CLASSES. 177 

passing over. The name of the receiver of the action is 
called the object. 

In the sentence, Stanley found Livingstone, the object is 
the object complement; but this is not ^always true. In 
the sentence, Livingstone was found by Stanley, the object 
is the subject of the verb. 

Verbs which have no objects are intransitive. 

To determine whether a verb is transitive or intransitive, 
we study its meaning ; hence, verbs .are classified according 
to meaning into transitive and intransitive verbs. 

A verb transitive in one sentence may be intransitive in 
another ; as, John studies his lessons (transitive) ; John 
studies diligently (intransitive). 

Definitions. 

1. A transitive verb is one that has an object. 

2. An intransitive verb is £>ne that has no object. 

3. An object is the name of the receiver of the 
action expressed by a verb. 

2. According" to Form. 

To express the action as taking plaee in the present 
time we say, I walk ; but if we wish to express it as 
having taken place in past time we say, I walked. The 
time indicated by a verb is called its tense, because tense 
means time. 

In the first sentence, then, the verb walk is in the pres- 
ent tense, and in the second, where the form is changed to 
walked, it is in the past tense. 

The past participle of this same verb {see Lesson 23) is 
also walked. Both the past tense and the past participle, 
therefore, are made by suffixing ed to the simple form of 
the verb. This kind of verb is called a regular verb. 

12 



178 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

Verbs whose past tense and past participle are not formed 
in this way are called irregular verbs. 

To determine whether a verb is regular or irregular, Ave 
study its form ; hence, verbs are classed according to form 
into regular and irregular verbs. 

Definitions. 

1. A regular verb is one whose past tense and past 
participle are formed by suffixing ed to the simple 
form of the verb. 

2. An irregular verb is one whose past tense and 
past participle are not formed by suffixing ed to the 
simple form of the verb. 

Study the verbs, participles, and infinitives in the follow- 
ing sentences, and classify them, first according to mean- 
ing, and then according to form. 

Point out the object of each transitive verb, remember- 
ing that the object may be either subject or object com- 
plement: — 

1. Quit yourselves like men. 

2. The men who live for something are never forgotten. 

3. How blessings brighten as they take their flight ! 

4. Caesar was murdered by conspirators in the Roman senate 
chamber. 

5. Music hath charms to soothe the savage breast. 

6. Jacob's flock was fed by Joseph's brethren. 

7. They also serve who only stand and wait. 

8. He remained a bachelor all his life. 

9. The letter was written before I came. 

10. To read without reflecting is like eating without digesting. 

1 1. No wise man ever wished to be younger. 
] 2. Learn the luxury of doing good. 

13. The sleeping hare was overtaken by the tortoise. 

14. The early worm is caught by the early bird. 



VERBS— TENSE. 179 

Use each of the following verbs in two sentences, — tran- 
sitively in the one, and intransitively in the other : — 
Drink, march, 1 sing, drop, speak, run, preach. 

State which of these verbs are regular, and which irreg- 
ular, and why. 

LESSON 81. 

Verbs have five modifications : tense, mode, number, 
person, and voice. 

Tense. 

As we learned in the preceding lesson, tense is that 
modification of a verb which denotes the time of the action, 
being, or condition. 

1 . The fish swims. 

2. The fish swam toward me. 

3. The fish will swim away. 

4. The fish has swum away. 

5. The fish had swum away before I spoke. 

6. The fish will have swum away before you can be ready to 
catch it. 

Here are six sentences in each of which a different tense of the 
verb swim is used. 

In the first, the action of swimming is represented as going on at 
the present time ; hence, the verb swims is in the present tense. 

In the second, the action of swimming is represented as having 
taken place in past time ; hence, the verb swam is in the past tense. 

In the third the action of swimming is represented as about to 
take place in the future ; hence, the verb will swim is in the future 
tense. 

1 Some verbs usually intransitive may become transitive, 

(1) If they are used in a causative sense ; as, He walked the horse, 
meaning, He caused the horse to walk. 

(2) If the object is kindred in meaning to the verb; as, He ran a 
eace, He dreamed a dream. [Such an object is called a cognate 
object.] 



180 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

In the fourth, two things are represented : — 

(1) The action is represented as finished, (or perfected.) 

(2) This completing of the action is represented as having been 
done in past time, which extends up to the present. 

Hence the verb has swum is in the present perfect tense* 

In the fifth, also, two things are represented : — 

(1) As in the fourth, the action is represented as finished. 

(2) But this completing is done in past time which does not ex- 
tend up to the present, but to some other past time indicated in the 
sentence. 

Hence the verb had swum is in the past perfect tense. 

In the sixth, also, two things are denoted: — 

( 1 ) The action is represented as completed. 

(2) But this completing is represented as about to be done at 
some future time mentioned in the sentence. 

Hence the verb will have swum is in the future perfect tense. 

There are, therefore, six tenses ; namely, present, past, 
future, present perfect, past perfect, and future perfect. 

Definitions. 

1. The present tense is a modification of the verb 
to express present time. 

The present tense also denotes — 

(1) What frequently or habitually occurs; as, Birds sing, He 
fishes day after day. 

(2) General truths ; as, The evil that men do, lives after them. 

(3) Past acts as if seen at present ; as, Napoleon advances with 
his troops, and breaks through their ranks. 

(4) Future acts ; as, We start for home to-morrow. 

2. The past tense is a modification of the verb to 
express action or being as completed at some past 
time. 

The past tense also denotes frequent or habitual action in past 
time ; as, He always took a walk before breakfast. 



VERBS— TENSE. 181 

3. The future tense is a modification of the verb 
to express future time. 

The future tense also denotes what is habitual ; as, He will sit by 
the hour in silence, and then will start up, as one waking from a 
sleep. 

4. The present perfect tense is a modification of 
the verb to express action or being" as completed at 
the present time. 

5. The past perfect tense is a modification of the 
verb to express action or being as completed at some 
past time. 

6. The future perfect tense is a modification of the 
verb to express action or being" as about to be com- 
pleted at a certain future time. 

Name the tense of each verb in the following sentences, 
and, if the time expressed is in any way exceptional, ex- 
plain : — 

1. John's father sent him abroad on business. 

2. Our new books will come to-morrow. 

3. The day grows dark and dreary. 

4. Time has healed many a painful wound. 

5. Charms strike the sight, but merit wins the soul. 

6. Edwin Booth plays in Philadelphia next week. 

7. The kangaroo, by means of its powerful hind legs and tail, will 
often leap a rod at a time. 

8. The mail will have gone before his arrival at the post- 
office. 

9. Columbus had sailed from Spain more than two months before 
he discovered the West Indies. 

10. In those good old times, men dealt honestly. 

11. She starts, she moves, she seems to feel the thrill of life 
along her keel. 

12. A new broom sweeps clean. 

13. God made the country, but the town was made by man. 



182 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



LESSON 82. 

Mode. 

Definition. — Mode is a modification of the verb to 
express in what manner the action or being is as- 
serted. 

1 . The fish swims. 

2. The dog can swim. 

3. If the dog swim fast enough, he can seize the floating stick. 

4. Swim for the stick, dog. 

Here are four sentences in each of which the verb swim is used 
to express action in a different mode, or manner. 

In the first, the action of swimming is indicated as a fact ; hence, 
the verb swims is said to be in the indicative mode. 

In the second, the verb is made to assert the 'power which the 
dog has to perform the action of swimming. The word potential 
means having power ; hence, the verb can swim is said to be in the 
jMttential mode. 

In the sentences, He may swim, and He must swim, we also have 
the potential mode. In the first, the liberty and possibility of the 
action are expressed ; in the other, the necessity of the action. 

In the third sentence, the action of swimming is subjoined as a 
condition on which another action — that of catching — may be per- 
formed ; hence, the verb swim is said to be in the subjunctive 
mode. The subjunctive mode may also express a supposition or 
wish. 

In the fourth sentence the action of swimming is represented as 
a command or entreaty. The word imperative moans commanding ; 
hence, the verb swim is said to be in the imperative mode. 

Definitions. 

1. The Indicative mode is a modification of the 
verb to express a fact. 

2. The Potential mode is a modification of the 
verb to express power, liberty, possibility, or neces- 
sity. 



VERBS— NUMBER. 183 

3. The Subjunctive mode is a modification of the 
verb to express a condition, supposition, or wish. 

4. The Imperative mode is a modification of the 
verb to express a command or entreaty. 

Name the mode of each verb in the following sentences, 

and state what manner of action or being each expresses : — 

Model. — The pupil may recite now. May recite is a verb in the po- 
tential mode, because it asserts either the liberty or the possibility of 
reciting. 

1. Whoever yields to temptation debases himself with a debase- 
ment from which he can never arise. 

2. Truth is the highest thing a man may keep. 

3. Write it on your heart that every day is the best day in the 
year. 

4. Much may be made of a Scotchman, if he be caught young. 

5. Be just, and fear not. 

6. If Grod send thee a cross, take it up willingly, and follow him. 

7. The greatest homage we can pay to truth is to use it. 

8. If God but wave his hand, 

The mists collect, the rain falls thick and loud. 



LESSON 83. 
Number. 

The lion roars. The lions roar. In these two sen- 
tences the verbs are in the same tense — the present — be- 
cause they both represent the action as occurring in pres- 
ent time. They are also in the same mode — the indicative — 
because each represents the action it expresses, as a fact. 
But the one is used with a singular subject, and ends in 
s ; while the other is used with a plural subj ect, and has 
no additional letter. 

On account of this change of termination to correspond 



184 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

m 

to the number of the subject, verbs are said to have 
number. 

Definition. — Number is that modification of a verb 
which denotes whether the assertion is made about 
one or more than one person or thing". 

Verbs have number only in three uses : namely, when 
used (1) in the present tense, indicative mode, (2) in the 
present perfect tense, indicative mode, and (3) in the past 
tense, indicative or subjunctive mode, of be ; as, (1) Sing. 
The wasp stings, PIu. The wasps sting ; (2) Sing. The 
cow has strayed from home, Plu. The cows have strayed 
from home; (3) Sing. He was afraid, Plu. They were 
afraid. 

Point out the number, tenm, and mode of those verbs in 
the following sentences which have number, and give rea- 
sons. Indicate which have no number : — 

1. England has had many heroes. 

2. Oranges come from Florida. 

3. He paid too dear for his whistle. 

4. All countries have had heroes. 

5. A stitch in time saves nirue. 

6. Nine stitches mend a rent. 

7. A cat in mittens can catch no mice. 

8. Mice eat bread and cheese. 

9. Grod tempers the wind to the shorn lamb. 
10. My sponge came from the bottom of the sea. 

Person. 

When personal pronouns of the singular number are 
used* as the subjects of verbs, the verbs sometimes change 
their forms to correspond to the person of the pronoun ; as, 
I am a pupil ; You are a teacher ; He is a merchant. For 
this reason, verbs are said to have person. 



VERBS— PERSON. 185 

Definition. — Person is that modification of a verb 

in the singular number which denotes whether the 

subject is a personal pronoun of the first, second, or 

third person. 

REMARKS. 

1. Verbs in the plural number never change to agree with the per- 
son of the subject, and verbs in the singular number do not always do 
so. When the subject is a noun in the singular number, the same verb 
is always used. 

2. Thou, the old-style personal pronoun of the second person, which 
is now obsolete, is the only pronoun that causes the verb to have a form in 
the second person. This form ends in st or est; as, Thou, God, seest me. 

3. The change of the auxiliary shall or will in the plural of the future 
tenses is not a change to agree with the person of the subject, since 
either auxiliary may be used according to the meaning to be conveyed. 
(See Lesson 94.) 

Point out the number and person of each verb in the 
following sentences : — 

1. He has lain down to rest. 

2. I pause for a reply. 

3. Thou, God, hast proved us. 

4. I bury all unkindness. 

5. Thou turnest man to destruction. 

6. He has declared the law unjust. 

7. I alone of all the Greeks know that I know nothing. 

8. You seldom go to school, and therefore you learn little. 

9. The days of his youth hast thou shortened. 



LESSON 84. 

Auxiliary Verbs. 

In the sentence, Meteorites have fallen to the earth, the 
verb have fallen is made up of what was once the parts 
of two verbs : but only one of them retains its former 
Have, when used alone, means possesses ; but 



186 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

in this combination, it is used to help the word fallen de- 
note that the action of falling is completed. 

There are eight of these helping verbs, which with their 
variations are used in combination with other verbs to form 
the different modes and tenses. The word auxiliary means 
helping ; hence, these words are called auxiliary verbs. 
Definitions. 

1. An auxiliary verb ' is a verb used to help in 
forming the different mode and tense forms of other 
verbs. 

2. Conjugation is a regular arrangement of the dif- 
ferent forms of the verb according to tenses and 
modes, for convenience of study. 

The participles and infinitives are included in the conjugation of the 
verb. 

3. The principal parts of a verb are the present 
tense, the past tense, the present participle, and the 
past participle. 

From these four forms all other forms of the verb may be made by 
means of the auxiliary verbs. 

Give the principal parts of the following regular and 
irregular 2 verbs : — 

see, catch, scratch, find, walk, buy, seize, ride, 

plow, reap, read, sew, cut, quit, prove, eat, 

bend, break, study, write, send, mend, improve, swallow. 

Conjugation of the Verb Mend. 

Principal Parts. — Present Tense, mend ; Past Tense, 
mended; Present Participle, mending; Past Participle, 

mended. 



1 The auxiliary verbs are he, do, have, will, can, may, shall, and must. 

Did is the past tense of do, would of will, could of can, might of may, 
should of shall. 

• a A list of irregular verbs with their principal parts may be found in 
the back part of this book. 



VERBS— CONJUGATION. 187 

INDICATIVE MODE. 
Present Tense. Past Tense. Future Tense. 

Sing, and Plu. Sing, and Plu. Sing, and Plu. 

mend. 1 mended. 2 shall or will mend. 

mends (3d Per. Sing.). 
Explanation. — The future is a compound form. It is made up of 
the auxiliary verb shall or will and the first principal part. To express 
simple futurity use shall with a subject of the first person and will with 
other subjects. Will used with the first person denotes determination, 
and shall with other subjects denotes command or authority. This is 
also true of shall and will in the future perfect tense. 

Present Perfect Past Perfect Future Perfect 

Tense. Tense. Tense. 

Sing, and Plu. Sing, and Plu. Sing, and Plu. 

have mended, had mended, shall or will have mended, 
has mended (3d Per. Sing.). 

Explanation. — These are compound forms. The present, past, and 
future of have, used as auxiliaries, followed by the fourth principal part 
(the past participle) of mend, form respectively the present perfect, the 
past perfect, and the future perfect tense, indicative. 

Give the mode and tense of each italicized verb in the 
folloiving sentences, and its number and person if there 
is a special form for these : — 

1. I will tell you the story of the drowning Frenchman, who said, 
" I will drown ; nobody shall help me. " 

2. None knew thee but to love thee ; 
None named thee but to praise. 

3. He who boasts of his descent praises his ancestors, not himself. 

1 Subjects are not placed before the verbs, because they do not form 
any part of the verb. There is no more reason why subjects should be 
placed before verbs in conjugations, than why predicates should be placed 
after pronouns in declension. 

3 It is worse than useless, it is confusing to the learner, to repeat the 
same form again and again for the different persons and numbers of a 
certain tense. For example, what is the use of repeating mended six times 
in the past tense? No matter what the subject is, whether singular or 
plural, whether a noun or a pronoun, whether first, second, or third per-* 
son, the verb is always mended. 



188 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

4. Rome had lost the art of warfare when the Goths came down 
from the North. 

5. When those who have rivaled Athens's greatness shall have 
shared her fate, her influence and her glory will still survive. 

Write the conjugation of the verb walk in the indicative 
mode, and use each of the eight forms in a sentence. 



LESSON 85. 

Conjugation of the Verb Mend (continued). 

POTENTIAL MODE. 
Present Tense. Past Tense. 

Sing, and Plu. Sing, and Plu. 

may, can, or must might, could, would, or 

mend. should mend. 

Explanation. — These are compound forms, and are formed by using 
one of the auxiliaries may, can, or must, and the first principal part to 
form the present, and one of the past auxiliaries might, could, would, or 
should, followed by the first principal part, to form the past. 

The choice of the auxiliary depends on which of the ideas, power, 
liberty, possibility, and necessity, is to be expressed. 

Present Perfect Tense. Past Perfect Tense. 

Sing, and Plu. Sing, and Plu. 

may, can, or must might, could, would, or should 

have mended. have mended. 

Explanation. — The present and prist tense potential of have, used 
as auxiliaries, followed by the fourth principal part, form respectively 
the present perfect and the past perfect potential. 

Write the conjugation of the verb plow in the potential 
mode, and use each of the four forms in a sentence. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 
3d Person Sing. mend. 
Explanation. — The subjunctive mode is going out of use, the ideas 
formerly expressed by it being now expressed by the indicative or the 



VERBS— CON JUG A TION. 189 

potential. Except in the verb be, only one form remains in the com- 
mon conjugation ; namely, the third person singular of the present 
tense. This form is used with singular nouns and with the pronoun 
he. When the other personal pronouns are used as subjects of a condi- 
tional clause, or when a plural noun is so used, the indicative forms 
of the verb are used. 

The notion that if, though, lest, or any other connective used with a 
conditional or concessive clause indicates that the verb is in the sub- 
junctive mode, is utterly false. These connectives are used oftener 
with the indicative mode than with the subjunctive. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 
Present Tense. 

Sing, and Plu. 
2d Person, mend. 

INFINITIVES. 
Present. Perfect. 

(to) mend. (to) have mended. 

Explanation. — The perfect infinitive is formed of the auxiliary 
verb have followed by the fourth principal part. 

PARTICIPLES. 
Present. Past. Perfect. 

mending. mended. having mended. 

Explanation. — The perfect participle is formed of the auxiliary 
participle having, followed by the fourth principal part. 

Write the conjugation of the verb save in the subjunctive 
and imperative modes. Write also the infinitives and par- 
ticiples of save. 

Obsolete Second Person Singular Forms. 

The following forms are not now used in speaking and writing, except 
in prayers (see Lesson 71, Remark 6), but are often found in standard 
literature. They should not, however, be taught as parts of the regular 
conjugation. 

They are all in the second person, singular number, Indicative and 
Potential modes, and always have thou, the old style pronoun, for the 
subject. 



190 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 
Present Tense, mend est. 

Past Tense, mendedst. 

Future Tense, shalt or wilt mend. 

Present Perfect Tense, hast mended. 
Past Perfect Tense, hadst mended. 

POTENTIAL MODE. 
Present Tense, mayst, canst, or must mend. 

Past Tense, mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst 

mend. 
Present Perfect Tense, mayst, canst, or must have mended. 
Past Perfect Tense, mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst 

have mended. 

In the present tense, Indicative mode, third person singular, the old 
form is mendeth. 



LESSON 86. 

Give the mode and tense of each italicized verb, and 
name the participles and infinitives in the following sen- 
tences. Give the number and person of each verb if there 
is a special form for these : — 

1. I chatter, chatter, as I flow 

To join the brimming river ; 
For men may come and men may go, 
But I go on for ever. 

2. Man never falls so low that he can see nothing higher than 
himself. 

3. Her modest looks the cottage might adorn. 

4. Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him. 

4. But yesterday the word of Caesar might have stood against 
the world. 

6. Neither a borrower nor a lender be ; 
For loan oft loses both itself and friend 

. And borrowing dulls the edge of husbandry. 

7. Tears have fallen in perpetual shower 
From man's apostasy until this hour. 



VERBS— CONJ VGA TIOK 1 91 

8. Saul, having learned of the friendship of David and Jona- 
than, is said to have thrown a javelin at the latter with such force 
that it must have killed him had he not avoided it. 

9. Well had the boding trembler learned to trace 
The day's disaster in his morning face. 

10. He has a cane made of a piece of wood taken from the 
frigate Constitution, a vessel used in the war of 1812. 

Explain how each compound verb-form in the foregoing 
sentences is formed. 

Write the entire conjugation of the verb sell, 1 



LESSON 87. 

The verb be contains more inflections than any other 
verb in the English language, and is perhaps more used 
than any other. A familiarity with its conjugation is 
absolutely necessary to a thorough understanding of the 
subject of voice and the progressive conjugation, which 
are treated of in subsequent lessons. 

Conjugation of the Verb Be. 

Principal Parts. — Present Tense, am or be; Past 
Tense, was; Present Participle, being ; Past Participle, 
been. 

1 To the Teacher. — Do not leave this subject of conjugation until 
every pupil can write the conjugation of any regular or irregular verb, 
explain the formation of all the compound forms, and also which of 
the four principal parts constitute the simple forms. 

Conjugation may be arranged with advantage according to tenses 
instead of according to modes. Experience teaches that pupils learn 
it just as readily when so arranged as when arranged in the usual way. 
It also gives the teacher an opportunity to avoid inconsistencies and 
unessentials that may have been memorized by pupils who have studied 
conjugation before. 



192 



PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



INDICATIVE MODE. 
Present Tense. Past Tense. Future Tense. 

Sing. Plu. Sing. Plu. Sing, and Plu. 

1st Person, am, \ 1st Per. was, ^ shall or -will be. 

2d Person, are, [are. 2d Per. -were, [-were. 
3d Person, is, J 3d Per. was, J 

Remark. — The explanations of the formation of the compound 
forms in the conjugation of the verb talk, apply also to the compound 
forms in the verb be. 



Present Perfect 
Tense. 
Sing, and Plu. 
have been. 



Past Perfect 

Tense. 

Sing, and Plu. 

had been. 



Future Perfect 

Tense. 

Sing and Plu. 

shall or will have been. 



has been (3d Per. Sing.). 



POTENTIAL MODE. 
Present Tense. Past Tense. 

Sing, and Plu. Sing, and Plu. 

may, can, or must be. might, could, would, or should be. 



Present Perfect Tense. 

Sing, and Plu. 

may, can, or must 

have been. 



Past Perfect Tense. 

Sing, and Plu. 

might, could, -would, or should 

have been. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 
Present Tense. Past Tense. 

Sing, and Plu. Sing. only. 

be. were. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 

Sing, and Plu. 

2d Person, be. 



INFINITIVES. 
Present. Perfect. 

(to) be. (to) have been. 

PARTICIPLES. 
Present. Past. Perfect. 

being*. been. having been. 



VERBS— CON J UGA TION. 193 

Grive the tense and mode of each italicized verb in the 
following sentences, and the person and number when either 
exists. Name also the participles and infinitives : — 

1. It is too late to be on our guard when we are in the midst of 
evils. 

2. If she be not so to me, 
What care I how fair she be f 

3. Of all sad words of tongue or pen, 

The saddest are these, "It might have been." 

4. Napoleon may have been a great general, but he was not a 
good man. 

5. Whatever must be, will be. 

6. Having been an honest persecutor, Paul could the more easily 
bear persecution. 

7. You have been wise, but he has been foolish. 

8. If General Lee's forces had been successful at the battle of 
Gettysburg, the Civil War would have been much longer. 

9. Being the thing I am, I do not shame to tell you what I was. 

10. And those who heard the singers three 
Disputed which the best might be. 

11. Bacon is thought by some to have been the author of 
"Shakespeare's Pla}^s." 

12. Be silent that you may hear. 

13. On Oct. 12, 1892, it will have been four hundred years since 
the discovery of America. 

14. If it were not for the power of the sun to cause the vapor to 
rise from the sea, all lands would be deserts. 



LESSON 88. 

The Progressive Conjugation. 

The boys skate. The boys are skating. 

These two sentences express the same thought, except 

that the predicate of the second, are skating, asserts more 

than the first. In addition to the simple assertion of 

action, are skating implies the continuance of the action ; 

13 



194 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

that is, that the action is progressing; and hence it is 
called the progressive form of the verb. 

The progressive form of the verb is made of some form 
of the verb be, used as an auxiliary verb, followed by the 
present participle of the verb which is to be used. The 
right form of be is determined by the particular tense, 
mode, number, and person in which the action is to be 
expressed. 

For example, if we want to form the progressive form 
of the verb skate in the past t tense, indicative mode, singu- 
lar number, we first get the past tense, indicative mode, 
singular number of be, which is was. To this we add the 
present participle of the verb skate, which is skating, and 
we have the full progressive form was skating. 

Write the conjugation of the verb skate in the progres- 
sive form. 

There is no past participle in the progressive conjugation. 

Expressions which have the progressive form are not 
always verbs. For example, in the sentence, The pros- 
facts are encouraging, the word encouraging is an adjec- 
tive used as a subjective complement, and denoting the 
condition of the subject, the same as the word bright in 
the sentence, The prospects are bright. But in the sen- 
tence, The men are encouraging each other, are encour- 
aging is a verb progressive in form and meaning. 

Point out the verbs in the following sentences, and state 
which are progressive both in form and meaning : — 

1. The'height of the mountain is deceiving. 

2. The wrongdoer is deceiving himself. 

3. The hawk is catching a sparrow. 

4. He is believing a false report. 

5. The measles arc catching. 



VERBS— VOICE. 195 

6. The woman is winning in her ways. 

7. Seeing is believing. 

8. We have been studying grammar. 

9. The dark horse is winning the purse. 
10. He acts as if he were dreaming. 

Emphatic Forms. 

The auxiliary verb do, and its past tense did, are sometimes used 
in the present and past tenses indicative mode, to express emphasis ; 
as, Common forms, Pies, write ; Past, wrote. Emphatic forms, 
Pres. do ivrite; Past, did write. 

Interrogative Forms. 

To ask questions only indicative and potential forms are used, and 
the subject is then placed after the first auxiliary; as, May I go? 
Will he come? 

In the present and past tenses of the indicative mode, the em- 
phatic forms are generally used in asking questions ; as, Does he 
write ? 

Has he a booh f is a remnant of an ancient form of asking 
questions. 

Write the emphatic and interrogative forms of ride. 



LESSON 89. 

Voice. 

Squirrels eat nuts. Nuts are eaten by squirrels. These 
two sentences express the same thought. They both con- 
tain the same transitive verb used as predicate, but not the 
same form of it. The first verb eat shows that the subject 
is the doer of the action, and the second verb are eaten 
shows that the subject is the receiver of the action. This 
modification of the transitive verb to denote the actor or 
the thing acted upon is called voice. There are two voices, 
the active and the passive. 



196 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

Definitions. 

1. Voice is that modification of a transitive verb 
which represents the subject as acting or as acted 
upon. 

2. The Active Voice is that form of the verb "which 
represents the subject as acting-. 

3. The Passive Voice is that form of the verb which 
represents the subject as acted upon. 

Why Intransitive Verbs have no Voice. 

Only transitive verbs can have voice. Intransitive verbs 1 often 
express action clone by the subject ; but they never denote this by 
any change in their form or meaning, and they never represent the 
subject as acted upon. They do have changes to denote other ideas, 
number, time, etc., but none to denote whether the subject acts or 
is acted upon. 

Therefore, since voice is a modification — a change to denote a 
certain idea — and since intransitive verbs do not have this change, 
they have no voice. 

The Passive Form. 

The active voice is denoted by the common forms of the verb as 
they are found in the different tenses and modes ; but the passive 
voice is represented by a compound form, which is usually called the 
passive form. 

The passive form is made of some form of the verb be, used as 
an auxiliary verb, followed by the past participle of the transitive 
verb to be used. The right form of be is determined by the par- 
ticular tense, mode, number, and person in which the action is to be 
expressed. For example, if we want to form the passive voice of 
the verb teach in the past perfect tense, indicative mode, we first get 
the past perfect tense, indicative mode, of the verb be, which is had 
been. To this we add the past participle of teach, which is taught, 
and we have the full passive form, had been taught. 

1 Intransitive verbs sometimes have the passive form; as, Spring is 
conie ; but these are old forms formerly used in the sense of the present 
perfect tense, and found now only in old writings and in poetry. 



VERBS— VOICE. 197 

The past participle of the passive voice is the same in form as in 
the active voice. 

Write the conjugation of the transitive verb teach in the 
passive voice. 

Form Does not Always Indicate Voice. 

Expressions which have the passive form are not always in the 
passive voice. For example, if we say, He was tired by the violent 
exercise, the verb was tired is in the passive voice. But if we say, 
He zoas very tired, although we have the same passive form, we do 
not have the passive voice. Was is the verb, and tired, denoting 
the condition of the subject, is the subjective complement. The 
verb tired in this sentence has the same use as the word sick in 
He was very sick, 

To determine, therefore, whether an expression is really a verb in 
the passive voice we must apply the following tests : — 

1 . See whether it has the passive form ; that is, a form of be, fol- 
lowed by the past participle of the transitive verb. 

2. See whether the subject is acted upon. 

3. See whether the sense is preserved when the passive form is fol- 
lowed by the preposition by and the agent ; as, He was very tired 
by hard work. 

Here, as is readily seen, it is not. 

4. If the first three tests indicate that it is not passive voice, see 
whether what seems to be the past participle of a transitive verb ?"<? 
really an adjective denoting the condition of the subject — a sub- 
jective complement. 

Point out the verbs in the following sentences and state 
which are in the passive voice : — 

1. The ruff was formerly worn by both sexes. 

2. All his garments were badly worn. 

3. The walls of the house are elegantly finished. 

4. The axe is laid to the root of the tree. 

5. The church was finished last month. 

6. The witness is sworn before he takes the stand, and is then 
sworn to tell the truth. 

7. Many insects are decorated with the most brilliant colors. 



198 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

8. The lady is accomplished. 

9. The ring is set with diamonds. 

10. Rooms are decorated that they may be pleasant to live in. 

1 1 . The task is accomplished. 

12. The trap is set every night. 

13. Is the watch wound ? 

14. The man is known to steal. 

15. The man was drunk. 

16. The man is widely known. 

17. The water was drunk. 



LESSON 90. 

Passive Constructions, — Regular. 

1. The boy struck the ball. 

2. The ball was struck by the boy. 

Notice that in changing from the active to the passive 
voice, 

1. The subject of the active becomes the agent in the passive, 
preceded by the preposition by. 

2. The verb in the active changes to the passive form. 

3. The object of the active (which is also the object complement) 
becomes the subject of the passive, but is still acted upon, and there- 
fore is still object. (See definition of object, Lesson 80. ) 

These three changes designate what may be called, for 
convenience, the first regular passive construction. 

Change the following sentences without altering the 
meaning, by changing the voice of each transitive verb. 
Describe the other changes this produces : — 

1 . Time conquers all. 

2. Those that think must govern those that toil. 

3. Certain signs precede certain events. 

4. The vane shows the direction of the wind. 

5. We spend our years as a tale that is told. 



VERBS— VOICE. 199 

1. They made him captain. 

2. He was made captain by them. 

In this sentence captain is an objective complement. 
In changing to the passive voice, 

1. The subject becomes the agent. 

2. The verb takes the passive form. 

3. The object complement, him, becomes the subject, as in the 
first regular passive construction. 

4. But the objective complement, captain, still retains its relation 
to the object complement (now changed to subject), and therefore 
becomes the subjective complement. 

These four changes constitute what may be called the 
second regular passive construction. 

Change the following sentences to the second regular pas- 
sive construction, and describe the changes that occur : — 

1 . President Garfield appointed General Lew Wallace minister to 
Turkey. 

2. Macaulay thought Boswell the greatest biographer that ever 
lived. 

2. In two States of the Union they call an incorporated village a 
borough. 

1. They are building two houses. 
In this sentence the verb are building is in the pro- 
gressive form. To retain this idea of progression in the 
passive voice, the progressive form of the verb be instead 
of the common form must be used. 

The progressive form of are is are being, which is made like the 
progressive forms of all other verbs. Adding to this the past parti- 
ciple of the transitive verb build, which is built, we have are being 
built. The sentence in its passive form, then, reads, Two houses are 
being built by them. 

This may be called the third regular passive con- 
struction. 



200 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

Change the following sentences to the third regular pas- 
sive construction, and describe the changes : — 

1. Maud Muller was raking hay. 

2. Rip's dog had been chasing a coon. 

3. At the time of his discovery of gold in California, Captain 
Sutter was enlarging the race of his saw-mill. 

Change the voice in each of the following sentences, 
state to which construction each belongs, and describe the 
changes : — 

1 . We read the deepest truths between the lines. 

2. He named his dog Fax. 

3. The student is studying French. 

4. We call the undue exercise of authority, tyranny. 

5. Pontiac incited the Indians to revolt. 

6. I have been reading Thackeray's Vanity Fair. 

7. In youth it sheltered me, and I'll protect it now. 

8. The queen was eating bread and honey. 

9. They elected Jefferson Davis President of the Confederacy. 
10. Nobody knew Rip Van Winkle after his sleep of twenty 

years. 



LESSON 91. 
Idiomatic Passive Construction. 

An idiom is an expression which is in some way peculiar. It 
violates the regular laws which govern the construction of all lan- 
guage, and is found only in a particular language, where it has 
been established by long and respectable usage. 

For instance, the word there is often used idiomatically in English to 
introduce the variations of the verb be, and place the subject after the 
verb ; as, There are no snakes and frogs in Ireland, instead of, No snakes 
and frogs are in Ireland. This use of the word there does not occur with 
other verbs, neither is there any other word used in this way. Even 
in English, therefore, it is not a common construction, but a peculiarity 
— an idiom. 

In the use of the passive voice there are five idioms. 
W r e learned in Lesson 90 that the regular passive con- 



VERBS— VOICE. 201 

struction corresponding to the sentence, They are building 
two houses, is, Two houses are being built by them ; but the 
same thought may be expressed by another form of expres- 
sion sanctioned by good usage, Two houses are building. 
This is an idiom. 

The irregularities are — 

1. The verb has the active progressive form, but the passive pro- 
gressive meaning. 

2. The doer of the action is omitted. 

3. The subject of this passive must name an inanimate object. 
It would be be ambiguous to say, The boy is punishing. 

This construction may be called the first idiomatic 
passive construction. 

Change the voice in each of the following sentences, first, 
according to the third regular passive construction, and then 
according to the first idiomatic passive construction. De- 
scribe the irregularities of the idiom : — 

1. The cook is preparing dinner. 

2. They must be harvesting grain. 

3. They have been weaving a new kind of cloth. 

The indirect object of the active may sometimes be the 
subject in the passive construction; as, Active, He gave me 
a book ; Passive, I was given a book by him. This may 
be called the second idiomatic passive construction. 

The irregularities found in this idiom are — 

1. The subject is not really acted upon. 

2. The passive form has an object complement. 

Change the voice in each of the following sentences, first, 
according to the regular passive construction, and then ac- 
cording to the second idiomatic construction. Describe the 
irregularities of the idiom : — 

1. Socrates asked his pupils many questions. 

2. Jacob gave Joseph a coat of many colors. 

3. He told me the story of the one-eyed giant, Polyphemus. 



202 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

An adverbial noun may sometimes be the subject in the 
passive construction ; as, Active, He walked four miles in 
an hour ; Passive, Four miles were walked in an hour. 

This may be called the third idiomatic passive con- 
struction. The irregularities are — 

1 . The object of a transitive verb is not used as subject. 

2. An intransitive verb is given passive voice to which there is no 
corresponding active. 

3. The subject is not really acted upon. 

Change the following sentences to the third idiomatic 
passive construction, and point out the irregularities : — 

1 . We traveled a long distance yesterday. 

2. Emma Abbot once walked seventeen miles to make applica- 
tion for a country school. 

3. He fell ten feet before striking the water. 



LESSON 92. 

Idiomatic Passive Constructions (continued). 

We looked for the arrival of the train. Regularly 
there would be no corresponding construction for this 
sentence, because looked is an intransitive verb. But 
the mind often conceives of the preposition following an 
intransitive verb, as if joined in meaning to the verb 
{looked for, in the sense of expected), which then takes 
for its obj ect complement the principal term of the preposi- 
tion. Led by this conception, it proceeds to change it to 
the passive construction, and we have, The arrival of the 
train was looked for. 

This is the fourth idiomatic passive construction. 
The irregularities are — 

1. There is no corresponding active voice. 

2. Voice is given to an intransitive verb. 



VERBS— VOICE. 203 

3. The addition of an inseparable adverb gives a transitive mean- 
ing to the passive form. 

Change the following sentences to the fourth idiomatic 
passive construction, and point out the irregularities: — 

1. I had thought of that plan. 

2. The} 7 laughed at the beggar. 

3. We had sent for the doctor. 

The fourth idiomatic construction has been extended 
also to certain uses of the transitive verb. In the sen- 
tence, They took very good care of me, we have the ordi- 
nary active voice. When changed to the passive in the 
regular way we have, Very good care of me ivas taken by 
them. But frequently we see and hear, I was very well 
taken care of by them ; that is, the principal term of the 
preposition, in the active, becomes the subject of the pas- 
sive, and the preposition, the object, and its modifiers all 
unite with the passive form of the verb to form a verb- 
phrase. 1 

This is the fifth idiomatic passive construction. Its 
irregularities are — 

1 . The principal term of a preposition is made the subject in the 
passive. 

2. The predicate consists of the passive form of the verb, the object, 
and several other parts of speech, all united to express a single verb 
idea. 

1 Grammarians have objected to this construction as being "too irreg- 
ular to be admitted into good English ;" but the grammarian has noth- 
ing to do with " admitting " expressions. His office is to explain what are 
already admitted. This construction is established in the language by 
the usage of the best authors; and it remains only to determine what 
are the true relations of its parts. 

The meaning obviously demands that was very well taken care of be 
considered the predicate. This predicate admits of no analysis. It is a 
verb-phrase, — an expression made up of several parts of speech so united 
as to express a single verb idea. 



204 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

Change the following sentences to the passive construc- 
tion, first in the regular way, and then according to the 
fifth idiomatic passive construction. Point out the irreg- 
ularities of the latter : — 

1 . They made much of him. 

2. We should take care of the poor. 

3. He made the most of his opportunity. 

Change each of the following sentences to the passive 
construction in as many ways as possible ; describe the 
changes that occur, and indicate which are regular and 
which idiomatic : — 

1 . They talked about the matter a long time before they did any- 
thing. 

2. We should not make fun of unfortunate persons. 

3. They granted Socrates the privilege of conversing with his 
friends. 

4. We went a day's journey before we thought of our baggage. 

5. They are publishing biographies of both candidates. 

Write sentences illustrating the three regular passive 
constructions and the five idiomatic passive constructions. 



LESSON 93. 

Be, do, have, and tvill are not always auxiliary verbs. 
When used as common verbs, all except be are conjugated 
in the regular way, and are generally transitive. 

Give the tense and mode of each verb in the following 
sentences, and state ivhich are used as auxiliary verbs : — 

1. I am thy father's spirit, 

2. You have done that you should be sorry for. 

3. Caesar has had great wrong. 

4. If one would be wise, he must will to become so. 

5. He docs not try to learn. 



VERBS— ERRORS. 205 

6. Do keep quiet. 

7. Napoleon did not enjoy his exile at St. Helena. 

8. You did the work well. 

9. Peter could not walk on the water. 
10. Have you a sharp knife ? 

Write sentences in ivhieh the empthatic forms of the verb 
see shall be used. (See Lesson 88.) 

Write sentences using the present, past, and future 
tenses, indicative mode of the verb teach, and let each 
express negation. (See Lesson 88.) 

Write interrogative sentences using the verb plan in 
the present and past tenses, indicative and potential 
modes. 

The Parsing of Verbs. 
Models. 

1. John saivs wood. 

Saws is a regular, transitive verb of the active voice. It is in the 
indicative mode, present tense, and agrees with its subject John in the 
singular number. 

2. I am thy father's spirit, doomed for a certain term to 
walk the night. 

Am is an irregular, intransitive verb. It is in the indicative mode, 
past tense, and agrees with its subject, I, in the first person and singular 
number. 

Boomed is the past participle of the transitive verb doom. It is in 
the passive voice, and is used as an adjective modifier of the noun 
spirit. 

Parse the verbs in the sentences you have just made, 
being careful to give only the modifications which the verb 
has. Study the models carefully. 

For additional exercises in the parsing of verbs the 
teacher may use some of the extracts beginning on page 
106. 



206 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

LESSON 94. 

Errors in the Use of Verbs. 

1. In the use of verbs, one of the most common errors is to use 
the past participle for the past tense ; as, I seen a comet last night, 
instead of, I saiv a comet last night. 

2. An auxiliary verb is sometimes placed before the past tense 
instead of the past participle ; as, / have saiv a comet before, 
instead of / have seen a comet before. 

3. The past tense and past participle of an irregular verb are 
often used as if they were regular ; as, / knowed it was he, in- 
stead of, I knew it was he. The past tense and past participle of 
a regular verb are occasionally used as if irregular. The verb prove 
is a notable example of this ; as, It has been proven that the earth 
is round, instead of, It has been proved that the earth is round. 

4. The past tense and past participle of hang, meaning to execute, 
are regular ; as, The murderer was hanged yesterday. The same 
is true of tie, meaning to falsify, but errors in -its use are not likely 
to occur ; as, Ananias lied. 

5. The auxiliary verb can, meaning to be able, is often used in- 
stead of may, which means to have permission ; as, Father, can I 
go to the picnic next week? instead of, Father, may 1 go to the 
picnic next iveek f 

6. Shall and will are often used as if they were the same in mean- 
ing. The same is true of should and would, the past tenses respect- 
ively of shall and will. 

Will is derived from the Anglo-Saxon loillan, which meant to re- 
solve or determine;. while shall is from the Anglo-Saxon scula.n, which 
meant to owe or be under obligations. In many (not all) of the uses 
of these auxiliaries the original meaning still exists ; for example, 
when one says, John will go to New York to-morrow, he implies 
that John has determined to go ; but if he says, John shall go to 
New York to-morrow, he means that John is under obligations 
to go. 

In / no ii Id go to New York if I could, the use of the word 
would also implies determination, I should go to New York 
means / onght to go. 

I shall be busy to-morrow implies that I shall be so, not as a 
matter of choice or determination, but from force of circumstances. 



VERBS— ERRORS. 207 

We may therefore conclude — 

1. That a verb with will or would for an auxiliary generally ex- 
presses action or being which is controlled by the will of the doer. 

2. That a verb with shall or should for an auxiliary generally ex- 
presses an action or being which the doer cannot control. 

Correct the errors found in the following sentences, giv- 
ing your reasons : — 

1. I will drownd, nobody shall help me. 

2. You should be richly rewarded, if you would be selected to 
go. 

3. If he had went sooner, he would have escaped injury. 

5. He has not spoke to me, therefore I shall have nothing to do 
with him. 

5. I come home yesterday, and will be here two weeks. 

G. The bell has rang, and every pupil had ought to take his 
seat. 

7. He has forsook his wife, and I have not spoke to him since he 
done it. 

8. It has been proven that the "Letters of Junius" were wrote 
by Sir Philip Francis. 

9. Can I use your pencil? Jane has took mine, and ran off 
with it. 

10. A large steamer ran into ours just about daybreak ; and al- 
though we throwed the entire cargo overboard to lighten the ship, 
she sunk in a few hours. The passengers were took on board the 
other steamer. 

11. She sung as if she was used to appearing in public, although, 
as I afterward learned, she had never sang in public before. (See 
Lesson 98. ) 

12. The glass of mineral water I drank tasted worse than any- 
thing I had ever drank before. 

13. A man may be convicted of manslaughter, and not be 
hung. 

14. That railroads are useful in developing a new country has 
been proven beyond dispute. 

15. I plead with him to make a confession, but he would not. 

1 6. He growed like a weed. 

17. You should have bough ten two, one for each of us. 



208 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

LESSON 95. 

Errors in the Person and Number. 

When a verb lias person and number forms 1 it should 
agree with the person and number of the subject; as, He 
is my friend. Books are spectacles to read nature. 

REMARKS. 

1. When the subject is compound, the verb is plural if the parts 
are connected by and; if they are connected by or or nor, it agrees 
with the one nearest to it. 

Examples. — Greatness and goodness are not means, but ends. 
Neither the time nor the cause of the accident is known. Neither 
he nor his friends were to blame. He or lam going. 

2. When the parts of a compound subject connected by and are 
taken together to name one thing, the verb is singular ; as, Bread 
and butter is wholesome food. The secretary and treasurer is a 
friend of mine. 

3. When singular subjects connected by and are preceded by each, 
every, no, or a similar distributive, the verb is singular ; as, Every 
bud,, leaf, and flower is evidence of design in God's plan. 

4. When connected subjects follow the verb and are emphatic, 
the verb agrees with the first ; as, Thine is the kingdom, and the 
power, and the glory for ever. 

5. When one of two connected subjects is preceded by a negative, 
the verb agrees in person and number with the other; as, Not he, 
but I, am to blame. Not I, but he, is to blame. 

6. When subjects are connected by as well as, and also, and the 
like, the verb agrees in person and number with the first ; as, /, as 
well as he, am a teacher. He, as well as I, is a teacher. He, and 
I also, is a teacher. * 

7. A collective noun in the singular form generally requires a sin- 

1 Remember that verbs have number forms ow\j in three tenses of 
tbe indicative mode, and person forms only when the subject is a per- 
sonal pronoun in the singular number. (See Lessons 85 and 87.) 

" A verb is of the first or second person only when its subject is a pro- 
noun of the first or of the second person." — Whitney. 



VERBS— ERRORS IN NUMBER. 209 

gular verb ; but if it is used in such a way as to suggest that the 
individuals of the collection are thought of, the verb is plural ; as, 
The committee teas discharged. The committee were unable to 
agree. 

8. Certain singular nouns, not strictly collective, often have mod- 
ifiers that give them a plural meaning. They then require a plural 
verb; as, There are plenty of apples this fall, but, There is plenty 
of fuel. One half of my pupils are studying. 

9. Certain contracted forms, consisting of the adverb not joined 
with an auxiliary verb, are often used so as t@ violate the law of 
agreement of the subject and predicate ; as, lie don't hear me, in- 
stead of, lie doesn't hear me. 

Don! I = do -f- not is not recognized by Webster's Dictionary, but is in 
more general use than many other -contractions that are there ex- 
plained ; but the use of contractions such as don't, can't, doesn't, aren't, 
ain't, sha'n't, won't, hasn't, I'll, they'll, he'll, we'll, and the like, although 
used extensively by many good authors, cannot be said to be habitually 
used by the majority of good authors. Being used chiefly in familiar 
conversation, they are styled " colloquial,'' arid should be used very 
sparingly if at all in written discourse, as they always detract from 
the dignity of its style. 

A writer of the advertisements for a well-known mercantile estab- 
lishment is said to have been discharged for indulging too freely in 
expressions of this nature. 

Fill the blanks in the following sentences with verbs in 
the present tense, giving reasons for the number of each, 
and for the person of tlwse that have person : — 

1. That statesman and patriot the gratitude of his fellow- 
citizens. 

2. Ever3 r plant, insect, and animal an important part in the 

economy of nature. 

3. He, and not I, answerable for this. 

4. The working class of people much better educated now 

than fornierty. 

5. A jury of twelve men. 

6. The wages of sin death. 

7. The beaver, as well as the bison, nearly extinct in the 

United States. 

14 



210 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

8. Nitrogen and oxygen the air we breathe. 

9. Either you or I under obligations to go. 

10. If you wish to study the characters of the great military 
heroes of the world, there Caesar, and Hannibal, and Charle- 
magne, and Napoleon, and Wellington, and Washington, and 
Grant. 

11. Not enjoyment and not sorrow our destined end or way. 

12. This people God-fearing and prosperous. 

13. The weary crew down to rest upon the vessel's upper 

deck. 

14. A number of these sentences open to criticism. 

15. The class all delighted with the prospect of a holiday. 

16. The power and the influence of his writings everywhere 

acknowledged. 

1 7. A great variety of wild flowers found in this neighbor- 
hood. 

18. The school-board a meeting once a month. 

19. The number of inhabitants in the United States very 

fast. 

20. So much honesty and faithfulness r seldom seen in one 

person. 

21. One-third of the regiment to be punished for disobedi- 
ence. 

22. A humanitarian is one who not believe in the divinity 

of Christ, 

23. Every one of the rebels to be banished from his native 

country. 

24. you going to the lecture to-night ? 

25. How your father and mother? 



LESSON 96. 

Errors in Mode. 

The peculiar tendency of the English language to dis- 
regard inflectional distinctions is again exhibited in the use 
of modes. 

Generally speaking, the indicative is the fact mode, — the 



VERBS— ERRORS IN MODE. 211 

mode for the statement of straightforward ideas, — and it 
is most used; while the subjunctive mode is the mode in 
which doubtful and conditional statements are made. But 
there is a growing tendency to express doubtful and con- 
ditional statements by means of the indicative and poten- 
tial forms, and as a result the subjunctive mode is fast dis- 
appearing. 

A careful adherence to the following rules will aid in 
avoiding errors in the use of the few remaining subjunctive 
forms : l — 

1. A clause expressing a condition or a concession assumed to be 
true requires a verb in the indicative mode ; as, If he is old (and 
he is), he is still active. Though he is old, he is still active. 

2. When a conditional clause implies lack of information rather 
than doubt as to the truth of the assertion, the verb is in the in- 
dicative mode ; as, If he is guilty (I do not know whether he is 
or not) he should not be pardoned. 

3. To express a wish, or a condition, or a supposition contrary to 
fact, the subjunctive of the verb he in the past tense, is required ; 
as, I wish I were a fairy. Suppose he were here, what would he 
think ? 

4. When the action expressed in a conditional or doubtful clause 
depends on circumstances in the future over which the speaker has 
no control, a verb in the subjunctive mode is required ; as, If God, 
send thee a cross, take it up willingly. (The sending here depends 
on Clod's will and future circumstances, neither of which can be 
known or controlled by the speaker. ) Take heed lest thou fall. 

Study the italicized verbs in the following sentences, and 
give reasons for the mode of each: — 
1. If I were you, I would go to-night. 
Model. — Were, the subjunctive mode of the past tense of be, is here 

! Eemember that these rules are only for the few subjunctive forms of 
the present and past tenses. All other conditional or doubtful state- 
ments, no matter what the peculiar shade of meaning, are expressed by 
the indicative or potential mode forms. 



212 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

used to express a supposition contrary to fact. The meaning is, " If I 
were you (but I'm not)," etc. 

2. If you can, come, write at once. 

Model. — Here the potential mode of the present tense is used, be- 
cause possibility or power (see definition of the potential mode) is implied. 

3. If he is in the audience, I do not see him. 

Model. — The present indicative of be is used in this conditional 
clause, because the doubt depends on a lack of information. 

4. If keeping holy the seventh day were only a human institution, 
it would be the best method that could be thought of for the polish- 
ing and civilizing of mankind. 

5. If the weather be favorable to-morrow, we will begin, to make hay. 

6. Though the ascent of a balloon seems dangerous, the descent 
is more so. 

7. Suppose you were the only person present to revive a man who 
had almost drowned, what would be the first thing to do? 

8. This sword hath ended him ; so shall it thee, unless thou yield 
thee as my prisoner. 

9. If there is a doctor in the audience, let him come forward. 



LESSON 97. 

Errors in Mode. 

Fill the blanks in the following sentences with 
giving reasons for the choice of the mode in each: — 

1. I wish I a boy again. 

2. Though they ten to one, be not dismayed. 

3. If I the king, it should be otherwise. 

4. If gold unknown, some other substance would be found 

to take its place. 

5. If I poor, I am not ashamed of it. 

6. If one apple two cents, what two apples cost? 

7. If thy right hand thee, cut it off. 

8. He will not be pardoned unless he . 

9. Suppose Canada annexed, what would be the gain to the 

United States? 



VERBS— ERRORS IN TENSE. 213 

10. If sinners thee, consent thou not. 

11. If he the way, he does not need a guide. 

12. If a man happy, it is needless for him to try to prove it. 

13. Pity me then, and wish I released. 

14. Mend your speech, lest it your fortune. 

15. If I you, I would buy that horse. 

1 6. Govern well thy appetite, lest sin thee. 

17. Though he me, yet will I trust in him. 

18. If two added to two, their sum be four. 



LESSOR 98. 

Errors in Tense. 

The tense of the verb should correspond with the 
meaning to be expressed. 

Remarks. — 1. In the sentence, lam acquainted with him for 
a long time, am acquainted, a verb in the present tense, is used to 
express completed action, which should be expressed by the present 
perfect tense have been acquainted, 

2. In the sentence, He denied that there was a God, was, a verb 
in the past tense, is used instead of is, the present tense, to express 
a general truth. (See Lesson 81.) 

3. An expression which is not a general truth, may have its verb 
attracted into the past tense by the verb on which it depends ; as, 
He said he was expecting a letter. 

Here was expecting is in the past tense to agree with said. If 
the direct instead of the indirect quotation were used, this verb 
would be in the present tense ; as, He said, "lam expecting a 
letter/' 

4. The perfect infinitive is often incorrectly used for the present 
infinitive ; as, / expected to have gone, instead of I expected to 
go. 

Here the perfect infinitive (to) have gone denotes an action com- 
pleted at the time indicated by the verb expected, while a future 
action at that time is the true meaning. 

The verb ought, which has no perfect tense, is the only verb that 
may be followed by the perfect infinitive. There is no other way 



214 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

for this verb to express completed action. Ex. — He ought to 
have gone, but not He determined to have gone* 

5. When two connected auxiliary verbs have a common reference 
to some other verb, the form of that verb must be such as would make 
sense with each auxiliary separately ; or else it must be used with 
the first and be understood with the second ; as, He said he, always 
had been and always would be a Democrat, not. He said he 
always had and always tvoald be a Democrat. I never have 
smoked and never will, not, / never have and never will 
smoJte. 

Correct the errors in the following sentences, giving 
reasons : — 

1. He proved to me that gold was heavier than iron. 

2. I should have liked to have been there. 

3. This is the third time I was sick since I am here. 

4. He said that he doesn't feel very well. 

5. You had ought to know your lesson by this time. 

6. Some people always have and always will believe in signs. 

7. He had expected to have had time to have visited you. 

8. He said he is going to dinner and would be back in an hour. 



LESSON 99. 
Errors in Meaning. 

Divide this lesson if it is too long. 

Verbs should be used in their proper sense. Many of 
the errors in their use are due to the fact that their mean- 
ing is not clearly understood, or is entirely perverted. 

1. The intransitive verb sit, which means to rest, should not be 
used for the transitive verb set, 1 which means to place; as, I set 
the basket down, not I sat the basket down. We set the hen, but 
the hen sits; she is, therefore, a sitting hen. 

' Set, meaning to go behind the horizon, is intransitive. It is not the 
same verb as set, meaning to place. There is some reason for supposing 
it to be a corruption of the verb settle. 



VERBS— ERRORS IN MEANING. 215 

2. The transitive verb, raise, which means to cause to ascend, 
should not be used for the transitive verb rise, meaning to ascend ; 
as, Fog rises, not, Fog raises, 

3. The transitive verb lay, meaning to place, should not be used 
for the intransitive verb lie, meaning to recline ; as, The tired man 
lies in the shade, not, The tired man lays in the shade. 

4. Let, meaning to allow, should not be used for leave, which 
means to go away from or abandon. Leave the door open implies 
that the door is open and that you want it to remain open. Let 
the door open, implies that the door is shut, but that you want it 
to open. 

5. Fly, flow, andy?ee should be carefully distinguished from each 
other. Birds fly, rivers flow, and culprits flee. 

6. The verb expect, meaning to hope for with confidence, is some- 
times incorrectly used for Suppose, think, or conclude; as, I expect 
he lost it, instead of, I suppose he lost it. 

7. The verb learn, which means to acquire knowledge, should not 
be used for teach, which means to impart knowledge; as, Teach 
me to write, not Learn me to icritc. 

8. Allow, meaning to grant, should not be used in the sense of 
to assert ; as, He said that he would never return, not, He allowed 
(more commonly lowed) that he would, never return. 

9. Calculate, which means to compute, should not be used for 
intend ; as, He intended to be here by noon, not, He calculated 
to be here by noon. 

10. The verb get, 1 which means to obtain as the result of one s own 
exertions, should not be used to express what simply happens to one, 
and is in no sense the result of his own exertions. We should not 
say, therefore, that a man gets killed if he is struck by lightning ; 
or that he gets left when he is too late for the train. 

1 The looseness with which get is used in such expressions as "got 
elected" il got up," "got crazy" " got a lesson" u got to Boston" "have got" 
and the like, is greatly to be deplored ; the carelessness of many authors 
of distinction in regard to the use of such expressions gives some color 
to the claim that they have the sanction of good usage. A careful ex- 
amination of their works, however, will show that good authors do not 
habitually use them, and the testimony of the authors themselves is, that 
they would gladly be rid of them. Dickens in his " American Notes" 
gives us a glimpse of our use of get us it appears to a foreigner. 



216 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

11. The verb come is sometimes incorrectly used for the verb go; 
as, I will come to see you next week, instead of, I will go to see you 
next week. 

The former expression is allowable only when the speaker expects 
to return to the place where he is when he makes the assertion. 

12. The verb make is incorrectly used in expressions like the fol- 
lowing: — I don t believe you can make that train; Make the light 
out. ( Outen the light is sometimes heard. 1 There is no such verb 
as outen in English.) 

13. The verb mind, which means to attend to, is sometimes used 
incorrectly for the verbs obey and remember; as, Mind your parents, 
instead of, Obey your parents ; Do you mind how ice used to play 
taw f instead of, Do you remember how we used to play taw? 

14. The verb guess, which means to conjecture, is sometimes incor- 
rectly used for think or suppose, as I guess Jane has your pencil, in- 
stead of, I think Jane has your pencil. 

15. The verb fetch means to go and bring, and should not be used 
in the sense of bring alone ; as, Fetch a pail of water, not, Go and 
fetch a pail of water. 

16. The verb.^c means to fasten firmly, and should not be used 
in the sense of to repair or to arrange; as, He repaired or 
mended my broken sled, not, He fixed my broken sled. She is 
arranging her hair, not, She is fixing her hair. 

1 7. The verb begin, used transitively, should be followed by the 
infinitive, while commence used in the same way requires the parti- 
ciple. 

Say, He begins to work at six o'clock in, the morning, not, He 
begins working at six o clock, Also, I commenced teaching 
yesterday, not, I commenced to teach, yesterday. 

Correct the errors in the following sentences, giving 
reasons : — 

1. I'll let this book here till I come back, if you' ve got no objections. 

2. I'll learn you to paint, if you'll learn me to embroider. 

3. He 'lowed that he guessed that there must have been an acci- 

1 These are Germanisms ; that is, literal translations of German ex- 
pressions, and they are found only in certain communities where both 
German and English are used. 



ADJECTIVES— CLASSES. 217 

dent somewhere ; for his friend had calculated to be there by noon, 
and had not come yet. 

4. It rained hard last night, and the little stream near our house 
has overflown its banks. 

5. The turbulent waters are commencing to subside. 

6. Get to bed, you sleepy head. 

7. Raise up a little, till I put this cushion under you. 

8. He sat the pitcher on the table, and left it set there all day. 

9. I write to tell you that we have got our new carnage now ; and 
I guess if it is convenient for you, we will come over to see you next 
Tuesday. 

10. Just as I got out to fix the harness, it began raining very hard. 

11. Come to see me, and fetch your work along. 

12. I tried the superintendent's examination last week, but I did 
not make it. 

1 3. Lay down on the bed till .you feel better. 

14. I expect you have been here before. 

15. Did you get all the problems in arithmetic? 

] 6. Do you mind how he looked when we first seen him ? 

17. Make the door shut, it leaves so much cold in. 

For additional exercises of this kind pupils should be required to 
collect from each other and from their associates incorrect expres- 
sions, and bring them to class for criticism. This is a good way to 
lead them to amend all bad habits of speech. 



LESSON 100. 

ADJECTIVES. 

What is an adjective? (See Lesson 7.) 

Here are a number of adjectives modifying the same 

noun apples. Write in one column those that modify the 

noun apples by describing the hind ; in another, those that 

limit without describing : — 

no apples. red apples, good apples, large apples, 

the apples, two apples, some apples, these apples. 

The two columns represent the two kinds of adjectives 



218 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

under which all adjectives may be classed. The first are 
called descriptive adjectives. The second are called 
definitive adjectives. 

1. Definition. — A descriptive adjective is one that 
limits a noun or pronoun by denoting- kind or quality. 

2. Definition. — A definitive adjective 1 is one that 
limits a noun or pronoun "without describing-. 

Words generally used as other parts of speech often 
become adjectives. 

1. Interrogative pronouns ; as, What lime is it? 

2. Relative pronouns ; 2 as, He saw a wedge of gold, which gold he 
coveted. 

3. Proper nouns ; as, Pullman car, Mansard roof, Macad- 
amized road. 

4. Common nouns ; as. Hay seeds, brass kettle. 

5. Participles ; as, Laughing gas, boiling water. 

6. Prepositions ; as, The above 3 definition, the within note. 

7. Adverbs ; as, Nearly everybody, the only time, even me. 

Classify the adjectives in the following sentences, and 
state which are generally used as other parts of speech : — 

1. Some Philadelphia people overtook a feeble old man tottering 
along a countiy road, and asked him to ride. 

2. Every hour of every day has its duties. 

3. Both candidates are good men. 

1 Note. — With advanced pupils the following subdivisions of defini- 
tive adjectives may be studied : — 

1. Demonstrative adjectives ; as, This apple. 

2. Numeral adjectives; as, Two apples, first man. 

3. Adjectives of quantity; as, No apples, some apples. 

4. Interrogative adjectives; as, Which way shall I turn? 
Generally the two classes, descriptive and definitive, are enough to be 

distinguished. 

2 Relative pronouns retain their connective force when they become 
adjectives. 

3 This use of the word above should not be encouraged. The word fore- 
going is to be preferred. 



ADJECTIVES— CLASSES. 219 

4. Whistling girls, like the crowing hen, are sure to come to 
some bad end. 

5. Iron pillars support many heavy structures. 

6. Swedish iron makes the best steel, because it is harder than 
other iron. 

7. Can anybody else find three adjectives in this sentence ? 

8. MacAdam made the first Macadamized roads. 

9. The army had rations enough to last two days only. 

10. Any fool can ask more questions than the wisest man can 
answer. 

11. From what source is the following sentence? 

12. Fall many a gem of purest ray serene 
The dark, unfathomed caves of ocean bear. 

REMARKS. 

1. A, an, and the are sometimes called articles, but it is better to 
call them definitive adjectives. The}' are adjectives, because they 
modify nouns and pronouns, as other adjectives do ; and definitive, 
because they limit without describing. 

2. When more than one word is used to express a number used as 
the modifier of a noun or pronoun, they may be treated as a single 
adjective; as, A hundred men, one hundred and ttventy- 
fifth hymn, a dozen apples. 

3. Fractions expressed in words should generally be written and 
printed as compound nouns ; as, He wastes one-third of his time, 
not, He icastes one third of his time. 

4. In such expressions as a little money, a few minutes, a great 
many men. little money is conceived of as a sum of money, few 
minutes as a period of time, and great many 'men as a crowd or 
assemblage ; and the a, before each of these expressions modifies, 
not the noun, but the conceived meaning as expressed by the entire 
group of words which follows a. 

5. A has a peculiar influence when used before few and little. 
Few means not many, but a few means some. Little means not 
much, but a little means some, 

A few apples means some apples, but few apples means hardly 
any apples. 

6. Both descriptive and definitive adjectives sometimes take the 
place of the nouns they would otherwise modify ; as, the good are 
happy. This is too bad, 



220 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

In the first sentence the descriptive adjective good stands for the 
noun people, while in the second the definitive adjective this stands 
for circumstances or some similar noun. 

When a descriptive adjective takes the place of a noun, it is called 
a noun ; but when a definitive adjective is so used, it is called an ad- 
jective pronoun. (See definition, Lesson 70.) 

The reason for this difference is that a descriptive adjective con- 
tains so much meaning that when its noun is omitted it becomes a 
name, while a definitive adjective so used simply stands for its noun, 
and has no meaning in itself. 



LESSON 101. 

Modifications of Adjectives. 

Number. 

1. Some definitive adjectives may be said to have num- 
ber. This and that have plurals these and those, while 
many other adjectives denote number without having sin- 
gular and plural forms corresponding to each other ; as, 
one, two, each, many, several. 

2. A or an is used only with singular nouns. A is used 
before words beginning w T ith consonants or the long sound 
of u (as in union) ; as, A man, a useful tool. An is used 
before vowels (except long u) and silent h ; l as, An ox, 
an honest man. 

3. Adjectives denoting number must agree in number 
with the nouns they modify ; as, Several oranges ; this 
knife; these words; two men; that spider. 

Plural adjectives are sometimes used with singular nouns 
to form compound nouns ; as, ten-foot pole. 

From Anglo-Saxon down to the present it has been 
common in English to use the plural adjective many to 

1 The use of an before aspirated h in words accented on the second 
syllable can no longer be insisted upon, since a is now as commonly 
used. Ex. A historical fact, or Ail historical fact. 



ADJECTIVES— COMPARISON. 221 

modify a singular noun when a number of objects are to 
be conceived of as taken one at a time ; as, Many a man. 
The a, originally not used, has been inserted in later times 
to emphasize the fact that a number of objects are to be 
conceived of as taken one at a time. 

Comparison. 

The most important modification of adjectives is called 
comparison. 

Definition. — Comparison is a change in the form 
of an adjective to denote different degrees of quality, 
quantity, or number. 

There are three degrees of comparison — 

1. The positive degree is the adjective in its simplest form; as, 
wise. 

2. The comparative degree denotes that, of two things, one has 
a certain quality in a higher degree than the other ; as, wiser. He 
is wiser than I. 

3. The superlative degree denotes that, of more than two things, 
one has a certain quality in a greater degree than the others ; as, He 
is the wisest of all. 

Degree Forms. 

In adjectives of one syllable er l is suffixed to the positive to 

1 In suffixing er and est (as well as other terminations) we sometimes 
need to drop the final vowel of the word, double the final consonant, or 
change final y to i; and therefore the following rules for spelling may- 
prove useful : — 

1. Final e, when silent, is dropped before a suffix beginning with a 
vowel, except when the word ends in ce or ge, and the suffix begins with 
a or o; as, fine + er= finer, but peace + able ^= peaceable and courage + ous 
= courageous. 

Hoeing, singeing, dyeing are examples of other exceptions. 

2. A single consonant following a single vowel at the end of a mono- 
syllable or of a word accented on the last syllable, is doubled before a 
suffix beginning with a vowel ; as, hot + er = hotter, red + er = redder. 

3. Final y preceded by a consonant is changed to i before all suffixes 
except those beginning with i ; as, holy + er -— holier, but carry + ing — 
carrying. 



222 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

form the comparative, and est to the positive to form the superlative ; 
as, Positive, strong; Comparative stronger ; Superlative strongest. 

Adjectives of two syllables suffix er and est when the forms 
thus produced are euphonious and easily pronounced ; as, happy, 
happier, happiest, but not awkward, awhwarder, awkwardest. 

Adjectives of more than two syllables are made to ex- 
press the different degrees of comparison by being modified by the 
adverbs more and most, the comparative and superlative forms of 
much; as, Positive, beautiful; Comparative, more beautiful; Super- 
lative, most beautiful. 

This cannot, strictly speaking, be called comparing the adjective ; it 
is the modifying adverb that is compared. 

When a decreasing degree of the quality is to be expressed, less 
and least instead of more and most are used ; as, active, less active, 
least active. 

Adjectives which express qualities that do not exist in 
different degrees are not compared. These are — 

1 . Those denoting perfect or invariable qualities ; as, chief straight. 

2. Those denoting material ; as, wooden, golden. 

3. Those denoting time or place; as, annual, American. 

4. Most definitive adjectives ; as, this, all. 

Some adjectives which in their strictest sense do not admit of 
comparison, may be compared when used in a relative sense ; as, 
clean, cleaner, cleanest. 

Some adjectives that do not admit of comparison are made to 
express different degrees of quality \>y being modified by adverbs 
which are compared ; as, more nearly straight. 

The degree of quality expressed by the positive is sometimes less- 
ened by suffixing ish ; as, blue, bluish. 

Form the comparative and superlative degrees of such 
of the following adjectives as admit of comparison, and 
explain the method of formation : — 

one, open, clean, merry, 

any, great, giddy, brazen, 

this, large, white, distant, 

rich, daily, wrong, slender, 

dead, strict, empty, natural, 



shallow, 


agreeable, 


A frican, 


dangerous, 


fragrant, 


wonderful, 


horrible, 


impossible, 


harmless, 


independent. 



ADJECTIVES— COMPARISON. 223 

Classify the adjectives in the foregoing list that do not 
admit of comparison. 

Which of these adjectives mag be compared when taken 
in a relative sense? 

Which may be treated like the illustrations , straight 
and bluish? 



[LESSON 103. 

The following adjectives are more or less irregular in 
their comparison : — 

Superlative. 



worst. 

farthest. 

foremost. 1 

first. 

best.* 

hindermost. 

hindmost. 
| latest. 
1 last. 

least. 



Positive. 
Bad, ) 
Evil, [ 
111, i 
Far, 


Comparative. 

worse, 
farther, 


Fore, 


former, 


Good, 


better, 


Hind, 


hinder, 


Late, 
Little, 3 


i later, 

\ latter, 3 

less, 



1 The suffix -most, found in many superlatives, is not the word most, 
but is a double superlative derived from Anglo-Saxon, the two endings 
being ema and ost ; as, aft + ema + ost ■-= afte{r)most, r being an interpola- 
tion. 

2 There is a distinction to be made between latter and last, and later and 
latest, the comparative and superlative of late. Latter and last refer to 
order or position ; later and latest to time ; as, The last leaf; The latest 
style. 

3 When little denotes quantity, its comparative and superlative forms are 
less and least, but when it denotes size smaller and smallest, the compara- 
tive and superlative forms of small are generally substituted ; as, Less 
noise: The smaller boy. 

Lesser, a double comparative of little, is used somewhat; as, "The 
lesser light to rule by night." 



224 



PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



Positive. 
Many, i 
Much, } 

Nigh, 

Old, 

Top, 
Under, 



Comparative. 
more, 

nigher, 

f older, 
{ elder, 



Superlative. 

most. 

r nighest. 
{ next. x 
( oldest. 
\ eldest. 

topmost. 

undermost. 



In the following adjectives the positive form is an 
adverb : — 



Positive. 
[Aft, Ad v.J, 
[Forth, Adv.], 

[In, Prep, or Adv.] , 



[Out, Adv.]. 
[Up, Adv.], 



Comparative. 
after, 
further, 

inner, 

nether, 

( outer, 
1 utter, 

upper, 



Superlative. 

aftermost. 
f furthest. 
I furthermost, 
f inmost, 
1 innermost. 

nethermost. 

outmost. 

uttermost. 

utmost. 
( uppermost. 
( upmost. 



Compare such of the following adjectives as admit of 

comparison : — 

noble, busy, utter, near, calm, 

ill, elder, bad, thoughtless, most, 

melancholy, many, certain, round, best, 

costly, Roman, top, inner, under, 

circular, first, perfect, after, universal, 

farther, weary, next, little, skilful. 

Use adjectives before each of the following nouns. Let 
some be in the positive degree, some in the comparative, and 

1 Next is the only form of nigh much used. Next is sometimes incor- 
rectly given as the superlative of near, which is compared regularly. 



ADJECTIVES— PARSING. 



225 



some in the superlative. Then use in a sentence each ex- 
pression thus formed : — 
Model. — Week. Next week. There will be no school next week. 



sun, 


dog, 


way, 


arm, 


men, 


taste, 


fruit, 


news, 


snow, 


week, 


trade, 


harm, 


ocean, 


bread, 


dollar, 


school, 


pulpit, 


degree, 


branch, 


history, 


student, 


scholar, 


brother, 


election, 


measure, 


industry, 


Congress, 


attention, 


journalist, 


disposition. 


education, 


obedience, 


eloquence, 







LESSON 103. 

Parsing of Adjectives. 

The adjectives in the following sentences are parsed as 

models : — 

I ate two targe apples last night. 
London is larger than Paris. 

1. Two is a definitive adjective, and modifies the noun apples, with 
which it agrees in the plural number. It is not compared. 

2. Large is a descriptive adjective of the positive degree, and modi- 
fies the noun apples. 

3. Last is a definitive adjective of the superlative degree, and modi- 
fies the noun night. 

4. Larger is a descriptive adjective of the comparative degree. It is 
the attribute complement of the verb is, and modifies the noun London. 

Parse the adjectives in the following extract from 
Charles Dickens : — 

When death strikes down the innocent and young, for every 
fragile form from which he sets the panting spirit free, a hundred 
virtues rise in shapes of mercy, charity, and love, to walk the world 
and bless it. Of every tear that sorrowing mortals shed on such 
green graves, some good is born, some gentler nature comes. In 
the destroyer's steps there spring up bright creations that defy his 
power, and his dark path becomes a way of light to heaven. 

For additional exercises in parsing adverbs, use the extracts begi li- 
ning on page 106. 
15 



226 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

LESSON 104. 

Errors in the Use of Adjectives. 

1. We should distinguish carefully between adjectives 
and adverbs. This is especially necessary after verbs. If 
the condition of the subject is to be expressed, we use the 
adjective; as, It feels smooth (not smoothly). If the na- 
ture of the action is to be expressed, we use the adverb ; 
as, He ivalked rapidly (not rapid). 

2. In using adjectives, we should be careful to choose 
such as mean neither more nor less than the thought to be 
expressed requires ; as, It teas a very enjoyable lecture, 
not, It was a lovely lecture. 

3. Adjectives expressing number should agree in num- 
ber with the nouns they modify ; as, He ordered five 
barrels of flour, not He ordered five barrel of flour. 
I do not wear that hind of shoes, not I do not wear 
those kind of shoes. 

4. The natural position of the adjective is immediately 
before its noun ; but it may have other positions if its re- 
lation to the word it modifies remains clear. 

We may say, A pole ten feet long, because it is readily 
seen that long modifies pole, although removed far from it. 
But we should not say, A good bottle of ink, because good, 
which really modifies ink, seems to modify bottle. 

5. Several adjectives modifying the same noun in an 
equal degree, are generally placed in the order of their 
length, the shortest first, whether they precede or follow 
the noun ; but if they modify in different degrees, the 
strongest modifiers should be placed next to the noun ; 
as, 1. A large, handy, comfortable house. 2. A little 
secluded old hut. 

In the first expression the adjectives are in the order of 



ADJECTIVES— ERRORS. 227 

their length ; in the second, in the order of their import- 
ance. 

Correct the errors in the following sentences : — 

1. He spoke very harsh to the boy. 

2. The ten last sentences are faulty. 

3. He is our mutual friend. 

4. We have traveled forty mile since morning. 

5. Good boys suits can be bought for three dollars. 

6. There is not such another example of foolishness to be found 
in history. 

7. Isn't this a cute note-book? 

8. He is very sick but I do not think he is dangerous. 

9. He is some better to-day. 

10. Small busts of the fair President's wife are now being made 
from the pulp of mutilated bank-notes. 

11. I slept splendid last night, and feel tolerable well this morning. 

12. Isn't that an elegant idea of Jane's? 

13. How much do you want for that there one? 

14. He has precious little time to spare if he wants to catch that 
there limited fast-line express train. 

15. Every known substance is supposed to be made up of little 
minute particles called atoms. 

16. What an awful amount of operations there are in those kind 
of problems ! 

17. The poor woman lived in a fourth-story, dingy, back, little 
room. 

18. The butter is all, but there is plenty of bread. 

1 9. She looks splendidly, but she feels badly. 



LESSON 105. 

Errors in the Use of Adjectives (continued). 

1. A, an, or the should not be placed before a noun 
used in a general - sense, nor before a proper noun; as, 
What hind of booh is that f not, What hind of a booh is 
that ? 



228 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

By using a we limit the noun book to one of a class, but 
the whole class is meant. 

The, an, or a before a proper noun changes it to a com- 
mon noun ; as, He is a Brutus. 

2. When two or more connected nouns name objects 
thought of as distinct or in contrast with each other, a, 
an, or the should be repeated before each of them ; as, 
Tlie lion and the lamb shall lie down togetlter, not, The 
lion and lamb shall lie down together. 

3. When two or more connected adjectives modify dif- 
ferent nouns, whether expressed or understood, a, an, or 
the should precede each of them ; but if these connected 
adjectives modify the same noun a, an, or the should be 
used but once ; as, A black and a white cat means two 
cats, but A black and white cat means one cat of two 
colors. 

Correct the errors in the following sentences, giving your 
reasons. Some of these sentences contain errors men- 
tioned in the previous lesson : — 

1. I would like to cultivate a farther acquaintance with you. 

2. These sort of accidents often occur. 

3. I saw a black and white man talking together. 

4. The pope and emperor met with great ceremony, and then 
withdrew to a private chamber for conference. 

5. Cicero was an orator and a statesman. 

6. He says there is a stone and brick house at the bend of the 
river, but I can't see them from this elevation. 

7. What kind of a word is the ? 

8. The secretary and the treasurer of the company is out of 
town to-day. 

9. There is something a-troubling him. 

A, in this sentence, is a remnant of its use as a preposition, found in 
Old English, but now obsolete. 



ADJECTIVES— ERRORS. 229 

10. Sing the first and third verse, but omit the second and the 
fourth verses. 

11. A definitive and descriptive adjective may take the place of 
the noun. 

12. The hyena is a species of a dog. 

13. Pronouns have three cases: nominative, possessive, and 
objective. 

14. Bread is more nutritious than the potato. 



LESSOjV 106. 

Errors in the Use of Adjectives (continued). 

1. In using the comparative degree of adjectives, the 
latter term of comparison should not be made to include 
in its meaning the former. 

If we say, He is taller than any man lever saw, we say that the 
person referred to by the former term is taller than himself He is 
taller than any other man I ever saw, or, He is the tallest man lever 
saw, would be the correct form. 

2. In using the superlative 1 degree of adjectives the 
latter term of comparison should be made to include the 
former : as, He is the tallest of all the men I ever saiv, not, 
He is the tallest of all the other men I ever saiv. 

To use the word other, as in the latter sentence, would make the 
first sentence mean that he was the tallest of a certain group of 
persons, without being one of the group. 

3. Objects belonging to classes wholly dissimilar should 
not be compared ; as, There is no nobler profession than a 
physician. 

Here a profession is compared to a man. The correct form is, 
There is no nobler profession than that of a physician. 

1 The use of the superlative degree when only two objects are com- 
pared is growing more common in the usage of good authors ; as, " Which 
is the best of the two." 



230 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

4. Double comparatives and double superlatives l should 
be avoided ; as, He is the ablest speaker of all, not He is 
the most ablest speaker of all, etc. 

Correct the errors in the following sentences, and give 
your reasons: — 

1. This lesson is of all others the most important. 

2. London is the wealthiest of the two cities. 

3. Shakespeare is greater than any dramatist that ever lived. 

4. Does your behavior make it worser or better? 

5. The order of Odd-Fellows in Massachusetts is now the largest 
in point of membership of any organization in the State. 

6. The flowers there are finer than any place I know of. 

7. Henry is the tallest of his brothers. 

8. This is more prettier than that. 

9. They are made more horizontal now. 

10. Hasn't it the terriblest taste of anything you ever tasted? 

11. John was the most disobedient, but William was the more 
stubborner. 

1 2. The use of the superlative degree to compare only two ob- 
jects is growing more commoner. 

13. I think he is the awkwardest boy of all the others I ever saw. 

14. Which is the greatest dunce — you or I? 

15. There is no occupation more honorable than a farmer. 

16. It has the largest circulation of any inland daily paper in the 
State. 



LESSON 107. 

Errors in the Use of Adjectives (continued). 

Correct the errors in the folloiving sentences, and write 
your reasons: — 

1. Did you ever notice how queerly a cow looks when she tries to 
run rapid? 

1 "This is the most unkindest cut of all" and similar expressions some- 
times found in standard literature, are exceptions They may have been 
used formerly as emphatic superlatives. 



ADJECTIVES— ERRORS. 231 

2. We took a road seldom traveled, which certainly was the 
roughest road I had ever traveled before. 

3. Farmers are planting less acres 6f potatoes this year, because 
the bugs ate them so bad last year. 

4. There is not much difference between the old and the new ver- 
sions of the Bible. 

5. He does not seem to value his privileges very high. 

6. He is the elder of three brothers, and is full six foot high. 
(Four errors.) 

7. Which is most desirable — wealth or honor? 

8. He has been gone this two hours. 

9. The English language derives many words from the French, 
German, and Italian. 

1 0. The school buildings of Denver are said to be the finest of all 
others in the United States. 

1 1 . Iron is the most useful metal, but gold is the most scarce. 

12. Any one of these two roads will conduct you to Philadelphia. 

13. She behaves proper enough, but her voice sounds very harsh. 

14. Which of these two roses do j'ou prefer — the red or white? 

15. If he feels as badly as he looks, he doesn't feel very good. 

16. He acts as if he thinks he knows more than anybody. 

17. No English king ever did so much for his people as Alfred 
the Great. 

18. What is the difference between a common and proper noun? 

19. Didn't we have a lovely supper? 

20. The truth, even when it is crushed to earth, will rise again. 

21. I think it is fearful hot to-day ; don't you? 

22. He is courteous, kind, and handsome, but he has a horrible 
voice. 

23. I saw a polliwog or a tadpole. 

24. Are you pretty near done eating? 

25. He can't do his work good enough to suit them particular 
people. 

26. No person shall be eligible to the office of a president who 
shall not have attained the age of thirty-five years. 

27. If two-thirds of twelve is eight, the one-third of twelve is 
the one-half of eight, which is four. 

28. Philadelphia has the smallest police force of any city of the 
Union. 



232 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

29. The grocer said that he had just received a fresh tub of 
butter. 

30. His money is all, and he must now work for a living. 



LESSON 108. 

ADVERBS. 

What is an adverb ? (See Lesson 7.) 

Adverbs may modify — 

1. Verbs; as, He awoke early. 

2. Participles; as, Stopping- suddenly, I listened for my pur- 
suers. 

3. Infinitives ; as, He tried to stop suddenly, and, was thrown. 

4. Adjectives ; as, He wa& exceedingly neat in his appearance. 

5. Adverbs; as, Franklin studied very diligently. 

6. Prepositions ; as, He stood Just behind me. 

7. Phrases; as, The ship was almost out of sight. 

8. Clauses; as, He does exactly as he pleases. 

9. Sentences; as, Unfortunately, I was not there. 

When an adverb modifies a sentence, it is usually analyzed as be- 
longing to the verb ; for the- vei?b is the most important part of a sen- 
tence. 

Point out the adverb® in the following sentences, and 
state what they inodify : — 

1. Sometimes I heard the hooting of the owl. 

2. Explorers have traveled almost to the North Pole. 

3. Just then a scout came flying, all wild with haste and fear. 

4. It is almost universally conceded that the best teaching of 
English is that in which precept and practice are most happily 
combined. 

5. The result was far beyond my expectations. 

6. Perhaps I am mistaken. 

7. He went out just as I came in. 

8. To be successful financially, a man has to work hard and live 
economically. 



A D VERBS— CL . 1 SSES. 233 

9. Many people unconsciously ruin their health by eating too 
fast. 
] 0. I saw him a week ago. 

1 1 . Almost before I knew it, he had gone. 

12. The train arrived nearly on time. 

1 3. He has certainly been faithful. 

14. To read aloud intelligibly is an exceedingly rare accomplish- 
ment. 

1 5. Jack fell down and broke his crown, 
And Jill came tumbling after. 



LESSON 109. 

Classes of Adverbs. 

1. Certain adverbs are sometimes used to introduce 
questions, and are, for convenience, called Interrogative 
Adverbs ; ] as, Why did the American colonists send Frank- 
lin to England ? 

Write sentences in which the following words shall be 

used as interrogative adverbs : — 

Why, wherefore, when, how, where, whither, whence, whereby, where- 
in, wherewith, wherewithal. 

2. Adverbs used to introduce adjective or adverb clauses, 

and to join these clauses to the Avords the clauses modify, are 

called Conjunctive Adverts. The adverb itself, in this 

conjunctive use, loses none of its force as a modifier; as, 

I must have been asleep when you entered. 

In this sentence, when not only joi,ns the adverb clause to the verb 
must have been, but it also modifies the verb in each clause. 

1 Interrogative adverbs are derived from Anglo-Saxon interrogative 
pronouns; for example, why is properly the Anglo-Saxon instrumental 
case of who, and was formerly preceded by the preposition for, which in 
Anglo-Saxon governed that case ; as, A. S. for whi = on what account ? 



234 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

Write sentences in which the folloiving words shall be 
used as conjunctive adverbs : — 

When, where, whereby, wherein, after, before, since, as. 

3. Prepositions become adverbs when their principal 

terms are omitted ; as, He loitered behind the others. He 

loitered behind. 

In the first sentence, behind is a preposition ; in the second, an 
adverb. 

4. Adverbs which modify verbs so closely as to become 
a part of their meaning may be called Inseparable Ad- 
verbs ; as, Some fell upon good ground, and brought 
forth an hundred-fold. 

Here forth does not have a separate meaning, but unites with brought 
to make a predicate whose meaning is unlike that of either of the 
words which form it : brought forth means produced. 

5. Certain groups of words, like at once, by and by, hand 
in hand, one by one, at all, more than, of course, in vain, 
as yet, etc., when used as adverbs, may be called Com- 
pound Adverbs ; l as, One by one the sands are flowing. 

1 It is difficult to classify adverbs satisfactorily. The five classes, inter- 
rogative adverbs, conjunctive adverbs, inseparable adverbs, compound adverbs, 
and the pronominal adverb so, do not include all adverbs. An exhaustive 
classification would need to be based entirely on meaning, and would 
comprise so many classes that, for convenience of study, which is the 
object of classification, there would be little, if any, advantage. The 
following nine classes, at least, in addition to those mentioned above, 
would need to be made — • 

1. Adverbs of Time'; as, I will return soon. 

2. Adverbs of Place; as, He came here yesterday. 

3. Adverbs of Degree, as, It is nearly dark. 

4. Adverbs of Manner ; as, He walks rapidly. 

5. Adverbs of Cause; as, He consents, therefore proceed. 

6. Adverbs of Order ; as, Hear me first ; secondly, hear him. 

7. Adverbs of Negation , as, He will not agree to it. He never came. 

8. Adverbs of Direction ; as, I go up as you go down. 

9. Adverbs of Doubt ; as, Perhaps I can go next week. 
For yes, no, etc., see Lesson 29. 



ADVERBS— CLASSES. 235 

The words, one by one, cannot be parsed separately. All three are 
used to express a single idea, — the idea often expressed by the word 



More than in such sentences as, He rs more than six feet tall, is used 
in the same way. As yet in, He has not returned as yet, is also a com- 
pound adverb. 

6. The adverb so is often used as a substitute for some 
word, phrase, or clause used as a complement. (See Les- 
son 28.) When so used it may be called a Pronominal 
Adverb. 

Examples. — 1. I am tired, and so are you. 

2. He believed then that he was right, but he does not think so 
now. 

3. Trifling proves that the mind is weak or makes it so. 

Point out the adverbs in the folloiving sentences, and 
state to ivhich of the four above-named classes each be- 
longs : — 

1 . He cannot make out the meaning of the passage. 

2. Your husband is at hand ; I hear his trumpet. 

3. When my father and my mother forsake me, then the Lord 
will take me up. 

4. Some mills turn out a barrel of flour a minute. 

5. How far is it to the next station ? 

6. He put out the candle and went to bed. 

7. When in Rome, do as the Romans do. 

8. The father looked in vain for his lost child. 

9. They went hand in hand from door to door. 

10. Milton did not get along well with his first wife. 

11. Let me hear from you at once in regard to the matter. 

12. You are responsible, and will have to make up the loss. 

13. The faster we work, the sooner we can play. 

14. Wherein do adjectives and adverbs differ? 

15. In these days of railroads, cattle do not run at large. 

16. As is the boy, so will be the man. 

17. I wrote to him more than a month ago, but have received no 
reply as yet, 



236 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

18. If he is not already rich, his unnatural greed for gain will 
surely make him so. 



LESSON 110. 

Many adverbs do not differ in form from adjectives. 
Tell which of the italicized words in the following sen- 
tences are adjectives and which are adverbs : l — 

1. Do not stay so long again. 

2. If he is not disrespectful, he seems so. 

3. He tried hard to solve the hard problem. 

4. He did wrong in directing you to the wrong place. 

5. He traveled fast and far, — in a fast train and in a far 
county. 

6. He works very little, and is of little account. 

7. All the men returned, and their steeds were all covered with 
foam. 

8. He was ill and was treated ill. 

9. You are right, and you do right in asserting your authority. 

10. One who talks loud makes a loud noise. 

11. He came late, being on the late train. 

12. The snow was falling thick and fast, it was exceedingly cold, 
and our great-coats were not thick enough to keep us warm and dry. 

13. Og, the giant king of Bashan, had an iron bedstead nine cubits 
long, and four cubits wide, and the fame of it had spread far and 
wide. 

14. It must have been a clear night, when the cow jumped clear 
over the moon. 

15. A just man was just here. 

Comparison of Adverbs. 

A few adverbs are compared. Like adjectives, they 
have three degrees of comparison, formed by adding er 
and est to the positive form ; as, Soon, sooner, soonest. 

'Many of these adverbs have also a form ending in ly ; as, rightly, 
loudly, thickly, clearly, widely, etc. Sometimes the form in ly differs in 
meaning from the other form ; as, clearly. 



A D VERBS— COMPA RISON. 



237 



Like adjectives, too, many adverbs not strictly com- 
pared are made to express different degrees of quality by 
being modified by more and most, the comparative and 
superlative forms of the adverb much; as, easily, more 
easily, most easily. 

The following adverbs are irregular in their compar- 
ison : — 

Positive. Comparative. 

Badly, worse, 

Far, farther, 

Forth, further. 

Ill, worse, 

Late, later, 

Little, less, 

Much, more, 

Nigh, nigher, 

[Rath — obsolete.] rather, 



Superlative. 

worst. 

farthest. 

furthest. 

worst. 

latest. 

least, 

most, 
f nighest, 
I next. 



Compare such of the following adverbs as admit of 

comparison : — 

far, here, often, badly, exactly, 

ago, soon, little, never, merrily, 

fast, loud, early, really, brightly, 

long, hard, worst, seldom, whenever. 



LESSON 111. 

In the following sentences change the italicized adverbs 
to phrases and the phrases to adverbs : — 

1. He treated me with kindness. 

2. No writer has said more exactly what he meant to say. 

3. He came with reluctance, and departed with eagerness. 



238 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

4. The criminal always thinks bitterly of the past. 

5. Act with humility and work with industry. 

6. He entered upon his new duties gladly and confidently. 

7. Prepare to go at once; your carriage is at hand. 

8. Of course .you see that I am not at all surprised. 

9. Wherewithal shall a young man cleanse his way ? 

10. Wherein doth liberty consist? 

11. He that would accuse another justly, must needs be innocent 
himself. 

Parsing of Adverbs. 

The italicized adverbs in the following sentences are 
parsed in their order as models : — 

The longer I stay, the more I am pleased. 
Inquisitive people always find out your secrets. 
His efforts were in vain. 

1. The is a conjunctive adverb. As a conjunction, it connects the ad- 
verb clause of degree to the adverb the, which the clause modifies. As 
an adverb, it modifies the adverb longer. 

2. Longer is an adverb of the comparative degree, and modifies the 
verb stay. 

3. The is an adverb, and modifies the adverb more. 

4. Out is an inseparable adverb, and modifies the verb find so closely 
as to change its meaning. 

5. Ln vain is a compound adverb, and modifies the verb were. 

Parse the adverbs in the following sentences : — 

1. Thither at once will I turn my wandering footsteps, and no 
longer be a dreamer among men. 

2. Immediately after this exercise the pupils were dismissed. 

3. Just as the twig is bent the tree's inclined. (See Les- 
son 95.) 

4. One by one the moments fly. 

5. The poetry of earth is never dead. 

6. Speak clearly, if you speak at all. 

7. Vice is a monster of so frightful mien 
As to be hated needs but to be seen ; 
But seen too oft, familiar with her face, 
We first endure, then pity, then embrace. 



ADVERBS— ERRORS. 239 

8. That mountain is not more than a mile distant. 

9. Do not stay so long again. 

10. Little by little each day it grew. 

] 1. Errors, like straws, upon the surface flow ; 

He who would seek for pearls must- dive below. 

12. Lord Darnley turned out a dissolute and insolent husband. 

13. Silently, one by one, in the infinite meadows of heaven, 
Blossomed the lovely stars. 

For additional exercises in parsing, use the extracts beginning on 
page 106. 



LESSON 112. 

Errors in the Use of Adverbs. 

1. In using adverbs, care should be taken to choose 
such as are appropriate in meaning. 

We should not say, for instance, He is perfectly horrid. 
.Perfectly means in a perfect manner. A person could not 
be horrid in a perfect manner. We should say, I will 
tell you at another time, not, I ivill tell you again. 

2. Mistakes in using adverbs for adjectives and adjec- 
tives for adverbs were discussed under " Errors in the Use 
of Adjectives." 

In poetry this interchange of adjectives and adverbs is allowable ; as, 
" Shadows dark and sunlight sheen 
Alternate come and go." — Longfellow. 

3. Adverbs should be placed in such a position in the 
sentence as will leave no doubt as to what they are intended 
to modify. They should not be placed between the prepo- 
sition to and the infinitive it introduces. 

We should say, He spoke only once, not He only 
spoke once ; I expect almost to finish it to-day, not / ex- 
pect to almost finish it to-day. 



240 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

Correct the errors in the folloiuing sentences, and write 
your reasons : — 

1. This is vastly the most romantic ride I ever took. 

2. I only have three problems solved. 

3. I am inclined to still hold to that opinion. 

4. I am just perfectly disgusted. 

5. I am that sick I cannot sit up any longer. 

6. Persons desirous of obtaining real good gloves should examine 
our stock. 

7. If yon will excuse me from reciting this morning, I will recite 
the lesson again. 

8. You must try to pronounce your words more distinct. 

9. My work is pretty near finished. 

10. He reads first-rate, but he spells poor. 

1 1 . The teacher only asked two of us to go. 

12. You said that so kind of solemn, I could scarcely keep from 
laughing out loud. 

13. This storekeeper doesn't sell fire-crackers still. 

14. I had to almost compel him to go. 

15. This is an awful cold day. 

16. He generally always goes on Saturday. 

4. The intensive adverbs, too, pretty, very, and exceed- 
ingly may modify only adjectives and other adverbs, and 
should not be used to modify participles. 

We should say, I was very much pleased to hear of 
your success, not, / was very pleased to hear of your 
success. 

5. Two contradictory negatives should not be used when 
it is the intention to express an affirmation. 

The sentence, He don't know nothing, contains two 
contradictory negatives ; one is in dont and the other in 
nothing. The two are equivalent to an affirmative state- 
ment, and the sentence means the same as if it read, He 
does know something. 

6. Adverbs should not be used needlessly. 



ADVERBS— ERRORS. 241 

The adverb alone is needless in the sentence, She went 
alone by herself. 

Correct the errors in the following sentences, and write 
your reasons : — 

1 . Try it over again. 

2. I will not try it but once. 

3. Our teacher isn't home this morning, I don't think. 

4. I was too provoked to treat him decent. 

5. I will not trouble nobody any more. 

6. Where does this waste water go to? 

7. I was very gratified to hear of your success. 

8. He doesn't know nothing about it. 

9. Bring some fresh water back up stairs with you ; will you? 

10. That's not right, I don't think. 

1 1 . I went down there to his house, and found him still in bed. 

12. Not there, I didn't see him. 

13. I was pretty disappointed, and couldn't eat no supper. 

14. I didn't know how to correct that sentence hardly. 

1 5. I got my letter last night already. 



LESSON 113. 

Miscellaneous Errors. 

This lesson may be divided if it is too long. 

Correct the errors in the following sentences, and write 
your reasons : — 

1. I can't hardly endure it another minute. 

2. I blotted my paper, and had to write the letter over again. 

3. That is the grandest sight I 'most ever saw. 

4. I couldn't talk out loud scarcely that morning. 

5. John, wait once, and I'll go along with you. 

6. It is very rare that this happens. 

7. Do this writing as quick as possible, for I need it as quick as 
I can get it. 

8. This is an exercise that is very easy overdone. 

16 



242 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

9. I can only see one that is worth purchasing. 

10. I'm pretty wellnigh tired out. 

11. Proceed on, we'll overtake you pretty quick. 

12. Lawn tennis is a real healthy game. 

13. I think you look something like your mother. 

14. She was provoked some, because I spoke so plain. 

15. She acts sort of cool towards me. 

16. Shove this box endways, so that I can pass. 

17. 'Most any kind of picture-book interests children. 

18. The man promised to pay his debt again and again. 

19. I don't know nothing about astronomy. 

20. He who studies from fear does not receive near the benefit as 
if he studied for the love of it. 

21. A triangle is where a figure has three sides, enclosing three 
angles. 

22. I feel awful tired, and my head aches dreadfully. 

23. Mr. Jones, I haven't no money to pay for these shoes to-day, 
but I'll pay you again. 

24. Whereabouts is our grammar lesson ? 

25. This is the letter where he speaks of his journey to the 
National Park. 

26. He seldom or ever stops here when he passes. 

27. The man's guilt is universally believed by everybody. 

28. He is so eager, he can't hardly wait till the train starts. 

29. He is almost totally blind ; and, besides, he is so feeble, he 
can't hardly walk. 

30. He said how that he would call on his way home. 

31. They seemed to be exceedingly interested in his progress. 

32. That there is not quite right. 

33. Let's go somewhere and have a picnic. 

34. We only have five minutes more to wait. 

35. The weather looks more favorably this morning. 

36. Is this } T our new sled ? Where did you buy it at? 

37. The chair where he usually sat still remained. 

38. Nobody knows from whence he came, nor where he is going to. 

39. We will have to stop some place and eat dinner. 

40. I want you to distinctly understand that I ain't no fool. 

41. The bashful man said, "I wished that I could drop through 
the floor a hundred times." 



CONJ UNCTIONS— CLASSES. 243 

42. Wanted ! A boy to learn pharmacy immediately. 

43. Finally the noise began to subside by degrees. 

44. Do you think you could walk that far? 

45. We 'most always walk on this side of the street. 



LESSON 114. 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

Define a conjunction. (See Lesson 8.) 

All connectives are not conjunctions. Relative pro- 
nouns, conjunctive adverbs, and, sometimes even aux- 
iliary verbs, are used as connectives. 

Point out the connectives in the following sentences, state 
what kind of word each is, and what it connects : ] — 

1. The fur that warms a monarch, warmed a bear. 

2. What is so rare as a day in June? 

3. Bear up, and steer right onward. 

4. God made the country, and man made the town. 

5. The most ignorant are often the greatest zealots, whereas true 
zeal should always begin with true knowledge. 

6. Were I king, it should be otherwise. 

7. Be not the first by whom the new are tried, 
Nor yet the last to lay the old aside. 

8. Heaven is not gained at a single bound ; 

But we build the ladder by which we rise 

From the lowly earth to the vaulted skies, 

And we mount to its summit round by round. 

There are two kinds of conjunctions, coordinate con- 
junctions and subordinate conjunctions. 

Definition. — A Coordinate Conjunction is one that 
connects expressions of the same grade ; as, (1) Charles 
and Robert study diligently ; (2) Charles studies diligently, 

1 See Lessons 8, 11, 33, 41, 47, and 48. 



244 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

but Robert wastes his time in play ; (3) In play or in 
study he alio ays is first. 

In the first of these sentences, Charles and Robert are of the same 
grade, both being proper nouns used in the same way. The conjunction 
and, connecting them, is therefore a coordinate conjunction. 

In the second sentence, but connects two clauses of the same grade, 
both being independent clauses. 

In the third sentence, or connects two phrases of the same grade, both 
being used as adverb modifiers of the same predicate. 

Definition. — A Subordinate Conjunction is one 
that connects expressions differing" in grade ; as, Dia- 
monds are prized, because they are scarce. 

Because connects two clauses of different grades, one being an inde- 
pendent clause, and the other a dependent adverb clause of cause. 

There are three kinds of coordinate conjunctions; 
namely, copulative, adversative, and alternative. 

Definition. — The word copulative implies simple 
union, and a copulative conjunction is one that con- 
nects expressions in the same line of thought ; as, 
Washington was brave and honest. 

Definition. — The word adversative implies opposi- 
tion, and an adversative conjunction is one that con- 
nects expressions opposed to each other in thought ; 
as, I remember your face, but I forget your name. 

Definition. — The word alternative implies choice, 
and an alternative conjunction is one that connects 
expressions between which a choice is suggested ; as, 
There never was a good war or a bad peace. 

Point out the connectives in the following sentences. 
State whether they are conjunctions, conjunctive adverbs, 
relative pronouns, or auxiliary verbs. If conjunctions, 
state whether coordinate or subordinate ; and if coordi- 
nate, whether copidative, adversative, or alternative: — 



CORRELATIVE CONNECTIVES. 245 

1. Light has spread and bayonets think. 

2. Look before you leap. 

3. Although we are nearest the sun in winter, the atmosphere 
at that season is coldest. 

4. We study diligently, that we may add to our future usefulness 
and happiness. 

5. As I knew you were not at home, I did not call. 

6. If there is one virtue that should be cultivated more than an- 
other by him who would succeed in life, it is punctuality. 

7. Never speak ill of the absent, or of anybod} 7 , unless you are 
sure they deserve it, and unless it is necessary for their amendment 
or for the safety and benefit of others. 

8. It is not money, but the love of money, which is the root of 
all evil. 

9. If you would learn the value of money, go and try to borrow 
some ; for he that goes a-borrowing goes a-sorrowing. 

10. Were he as rich as Croesus, I would not treat him differently. 



LESSON 115. 

Correlative Connectives. 

Certain conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs have 
their connective force strengthened by being accompanied 
by other conjunctions or by adverbs; as, I am not so tall 
as you are. 

In this sentence, the clause, as you are, modifies tail through the ad- 
verb so ; that is, so and as, taken together, connect it to tall. 

Double connectives of this kind are called correlative 
connectives. 1 

1 Correlative connectives should be distinguished from compound con- 
junctions. In the sentence, Light as well as heat is a mode of motion, the 
connective as well as is a compound conjunction; while in, The building 
is lighted as well as it is heated, as and as form a correlative connective, 
and well is an adverb. 

As if, as though, forasmuch as, inasmuch as, but that, etc., are often used 
as compound conjunctions. 



246 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

Point out the correlative connectives in the following 
sentences, and state of what they are composed: — 

1. Where your treasure is, there will your heart be. 

2. Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him. 

3. As far as the east is from the west, so far hath he removed 
our transgressions from us. 

4. David was not so tall as Goliath. 

5. Be honest, not only because honesty is the best policy, but also 
because it is right. 

6. Neither threats nor entreaties could turn him from his pur- 
pose. 

7. Man never falls so low that he can see nothing higher than 
himself. 

8. Either you must be quiet or leave the room. 

9. Neither a borrower nor a lender be, 
For loan oft loses both itself and friend. 

10. The farther south you go, the warmer the climate becomes 
until you reach the equator. 

1 1 . Choose not only a proper mate, but a proper time to marry. 

Make sentences containing the following correlative con- 
nectives : — 

both — and, f still, as— so, 

either — or, though — < yet, so — as, 

neither — nor, ' nevertheless, so — that, 

7 f but even, where — there, when — then, 

not only — i , , in 

I but also, as — as, the — the. 



LESSON 116. 

Parsing of Conjunctions. 

The italicized conjunctions in the following sentences 
are parsed as models : — 

Though he was mild in manner, yet he was firm in principle. 

Eighty per cent, of the people of the Southern States can neither 
read nor write. 



CONJUNCTIONS— ERROBS. 247 

He is poor, but honest. 

1. Though and yet form a correlative connective. Yet is an adverb 
modifying was, the predicate of the independent clause, and though is a 
subordinate conjunction connecting to the adverb yet the dependent 
adverb clause of concession. 

2. Neither and nor form a correlative connective. They are both 
negative coordinate conjunctions, and connect read and write, the parts 
of the compound predicate. 

3. Rat is a coordinate adversative conjunction, and connects poor and 
honest, the parts of the compound sulyective complement. 

Parse the conjunctions in the following sentences : — 

1. He looks as if he were scared. 

2. Honor thy father and thy mother, that thy days may be long 
in the land. 

3. A nod is as good as a wink to a blind horse. 

4. The more a man has, the more he wants. 

5. Give me liberty, or give me death. 

6. Be swift to hear, but cautious of 3 T our tongue, lest you betray 
your ignorance. 

7. Example is better than precept 

8. Judge not, that ye be not judged. 

9. When Greeks joined Greeks, then was the tug of war. 

10. Wheresoever the carcase is, there will the eagles be gathered 
together, 

11. God doth not need either man's works or his own gifts. 

12. If you would be pungent, be brief; for it is v?ith words as 
with sunbeams, — the more they are condensed, the deeper they 
burn. 

Errors in the Use of Conjunctions. 

1. In correlative connectives the right words should 
stand in correlation. Errors often occur in the use of or 
and nor. Or is the proper correlative of either and whether, 
and nor of neither ; as, Neither he nor I could go, not 
Neither he or I could go. 

2. Than, and not but, should be used after else, other, 
and otherwise to denote comparison ; as, I could not do 
otherwise than go, not 1 could not do otherwise but go. 



248 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

3. Other parts of speech should not be used instead of 
conjunctions. Errors often occur in the use of like, which 
is never a conjunction, for as or as if; except and without 
for unless ; but what for but or that. 

We should not say, He looks like I do, but He looks like me ; not He 
reads like his teacher does, but He reads as his teacher does.. 

We should not say, / shall be lonesome without or except you ac- 
company us, but I shall be lonesome unless you accompany us. 

We should not say, I cannot believe but what he is truthful, but / 
cannot believe but (or but that) he is truthful. 

4. Conjunctions should not be used instead of other 
parts of speech. Errors occur in the use of and instead 
of to before an infinitive ; as, Try and do right is often 
incorrectly used for Try to do right ; also in the use of if 
for the more forcible introductory word whether ; as, Til 
see if he has come, instead of Til see whether he has 
come. 

5. Conjunctions should not be used needlessly. For 
instance, do not say, Burns killed himself with drink, and 
which was a great misfortune to the world. 

Correct the errors in the following sentences, and zvrite 
your reasons : — 

1. Try and recite this lesson perfectly. 

2. Neither you nor me was invited. 

3. He looks like he was a tramp. 

4. I heard him saying as you were ill. 

5. Do not undertake anything without you have reason to believe 
you can do it well. 

6. I don't know if I can go or not. 

7. A glacier is nothing else except a great river of snow and ice. 

8. Skunk-cabbage is a plant of disagreeable odor, and which 
always grows in damp places. 

9. I was that worried that I couldn't either eat nor sleep. 

10. The wretched man found his fellow-prisoner to be no other 
but his own long-absent, wayward son. 



PEEPOSITIONS— CLASSES. 249 

11. He was very determined ; just like his father was. 

12. Except a man knows his faults, he cannot mend them. 

13. Who knows but what, some day, some genius may invent a 
means of navigating the air? 

14. She thinks she will go and visit her mother next week. 

15. Ask your teacher if this sentence is correct. 

16. Where a man tries to do right, he ought to be encouraged. 



LESSON 117. 

PREPOSITIONS. 

Define a preposition. (See Lesson 6.) 
There are three kinds of prepositions : — 

1. The Simple Preposition, which consists of a single 
word ; as, in, into, at, etc. 

2. The Compound Preposition, which consists of two or 
more words used as a preposition ; as, because of, out of, etc. 

3. The Participial Preposition, which consists of a 
present participle that has lost its verb nature and become 
a pure relation wwd ; as, concerning. (See Lesson 25.) 

Find the prepositions in the following sentences, and state 
to which of these three classes each belongs : — 

1 . Jack climbed and climbed for several hours, and at last, worn 
out with hunger and fatigue, reached the top of the bean-stalk. 

2. Keep thy heart with all diligence, for out of it are the issues 
of life. 

3. Thousands die every year because of ignorance. 

4. The English Channel is between England and France. 

5. Notwithstanding his many temptations and hardships, Frank- 
lin's honesty, frugality, and good sense made him a great and suc- 
cessful man. 

A preposition may take for its principal term, 

1. A noun or pronoun ; as, I went to him for help. 

2. An infinitive : as, The boat is about TO start. 



250 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

3. A participle ; as, We receive good BY doing good. 

4. A prepositional phrase; as, He ran from under the falling 
rock, 

5. A noun clause ; as, lam in doubt AS to who said it. 

Write sentences to illustrate the use of each of the fore- 
going elements as the principal term of a preposition. 

State to which of the three classes of prepositions each 

of the following prepositions belongs, and use each in a 

sentence : — 

till, below, amidst, pending, throughout, 

but, out of, during, instead of, according to, 

save, before, towards, because of, notwithstanding, 

as to, except, between, concerning, 



LESSON 1.18. 

The careful study of a good dictionary, coupled with a 
careful observation of the usage of good authors is the only 
safe guide in the use of prepositions. There are certain 
words in our language with which, certain prepositions are 
generally used, but a slight change in the meaning of any 
of these words or a change in the idea which follows often 
requires a different preposition. For instance, the word 
abide, meaning to dioell, is followed (1) by at when at in- 
troduces place; as, He abides at the hotel; (2) by with, 
when with introduces the names of persons ; as, He abides 
with his relatives ; (3) by the preposition by, when by in- 
troduces a fixed condition ; as, He must abide by your 
decision. 

Determine by the study of the dictionary, and what you 
know of good usage, what are the proper prepositions to 
fill the blanks in the following sentences : — 



PREPOSITIONS— CHOICE OF. 251 

1. A man would be insensible danger, if he were insensible 

pain. 

2. His father is growing anxious him, because he has lately 

grown so anxious wealth and luxury. 

3. He is careless himself, careless his attire, careless 

everything. 

4. Franklin could accommodate himself the most pinching 

circumstances, and even then accommodate a friend his last 

shilling. 

5. Indirectly you will be able to exert a good influence him, 

because you have so much influence his employer. 

6. He arrived time to take the steamer, but the steamer 

never arrived its destination. 

7. Remonstrate every kind of wrong-doing, and remonstrate 

also every evil-doer. 

8. Let us communicate the chairman of the committee, and 

have him communicate our desires the other members. 

9. My suit was made Brown's ; it was made good 

material, and was made service, not display. 

10. A taste one good author, often lays the foundation 

a taste good literature. 

1 1. A man keen foresight has the advantage any one 

who tries to take advantage him. 

12. He first inquired my health, after which I inquired 

Mr. Clark, and asked him to inquire the chief clerk whether 

any one had inquired the business standing of the firm I rep- 
resented. 

13. A lazy farmer is always disappointed his crops, and his 

landlord is consequently disappointed him. 

14. They intruded my time. 

1 5. He is expert doing some things, but he is not expert 

foot-ball. 

16. It is difiicult to distinguish a mushroom a toadstool, but 

they may generally be distinguished their color. 

17. Defend me the attacks of enemies that wear the garb 

of friendship, and I can defend myself all harm. 

18. Strive temptation; strive the truth; but, unless it 

is an absolute necessity, never strive your fellow-men. 

19. The steamer on which we sailed touched Mt. Vernon; 



252 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

but I can only. touch ■ our delightful visit there, and will tell 

you more it when I see you. 

20. Agree an adversary, even if you must agree his 

proposal. 

21. He will not argue you, but I have heard him argue 

the measure you propose. 

22. The guilty prisoner is impatient restraint, while the in- 
nocent one is impatient his trial. 

23. I am familiar the poem, but that line is not familiar 

me. 

24. Parents who indulge their children luxuries, generally 

live to see their children indulge idleness. 

25. Thousands die the wayside; some die hunger, 

others die lack sympathy. 

26. Air consists oxygen and nitrogen; breathing consists 

separating the oxygen from a quantity of air. 

27. We may compare one tree another, because they are 

things of the same kind ; and we compare a volcano a furnace, 

because they are unlike. 

28. Knives and forks are very useful man ; knives are use- 
ful cutting our food, and forks conveying it to the mouth. 

Spoons also are useful many purposes. 

29. They placed a crown his head, and they placed a spark- 
ling jewel the crown. 

30. One servant attends his master constantly ; the other 

stays at home, and attends his master's affairs. 

31. God was angry the Israelites their idolatry, and he 

is doubtless just as angry the sins and short-comings of his 

present followers. 

32. John lives the cross-roads, and William Hues the 

village ; they both live meagre incomes. 

33. We are often iveary many cares, we even grow weary 

study, but we should never allow ourselves to be weary 

the performance of noble deeds. 

34- Provide your future comforts by providing yourself 

all the necessaries of life. 

35. I will accompany you to call a friend, if you will call 

me. 



PREPOSITIONS— PARSING OF. 253 



LESSON 119. 

Form short sentences in which each of the following 

words shall he used with each of the prepositions accom- 

yanyiny it : — 

Model. — Accuse of, by. 

1. He was accused of theft. 

2. He was accused by his friend. 

Accord ivith, to. Obliged to, for. 

Adapted to, for. Part from, with. 

Attend to, upon. Provide for, ivith, against. 

Confer on, with. Reconcile to, with. 

Confide in, to. Regard for, to. 

Conversant with, in, about Think of on. 

Correspond with, to. Thirst for, after. 

Disappointed of, in. True to, of 

Expert at, in. Yearn for, towards. 
Look after, for, on. 

Parsing of Prepositions, 

The italicized prepositions in the following sentences are 
parsed as models : — 

Pending debate, the Senate adjourned. 
I am in doubt as to what course to take. 

1. Pending is a participial preposition expressing the relation of the 
noun debate to the verb adjourned. 

2. In is a simple preposition expressing the relation of the noun doubt 
to the verb am. 

3. As to is a compound preposition expressing the relation of the 
phrase what course to take to the noun doubt. 

Parse the prepositions in the following sentences : — 

1. All persons found trespassing upon these premises will be dealt 
with according to law. 

2. During the pleasant weather of spring and fall he goes to and 
from his boarding-house on horseback. 

3. All but him have fled. 

4. Of the Jews, five times received I forty stripes save one. 



254 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

5. Belial came last, than ] whom a spirit more lewd 
Fell not from heaven. 



LESSON 120. 

Errors in the Use of Prepositions. 

1. Prepositions should not be used needlessly. 

We should not say, He came at about noon. Either at 
or about should be used as the meaning requires, but not 
both words. 

2. Prepositions should not be omitted when needed. 
We should not say, There is no use saying any tiling 

about it. The preposition in should be used before saying. 

3. Appropriate prepositions should be chosen. 

We should not say, My ball is different to yours. From 
is the appropriate preposition to use after the word different. 

4. The preposition in should seldom be used for into, to 
denote the change of relation which occurs when something 
passes from one place or condition to another. 

The sentence, Henry walked into the room implies that 
he was outside of the room, and changed his position to one 
wholly within the room ; while to say, Henry walked in the 
room implies that he was within the room, and walked about 
while there. 

Between 2 is generally used to express the relation of 
two things or of two sets of things to a third ; as, Alex- 

1 Than is here used as a preposition, though this use of the word can- 
not be said to be common in English. It was a favorite construction 
with Milton, but its use should not be encouraged. 

5 Sometimes, in good literature, we find expressions containing the word 
between used in reference to more than two, but generally they are in- 
stances in which the objects are naturally thought of by twos; as, Read 
between the lines, Place marks between the leaves, Allow more space 
between your words. 



PREPOSITIONS— EBBOBS. 255 

ander stood between Diogenes and the sun; among is 
used to express the same relation when more than two 
are referred to ; as, Alexander stood among his courtiers. 

Correct the errors found in the following sentences, and 
give reasons : — 

1 . She fell out of the boat in the water. 

2. At what hotel does your friend stay at? 

3. Rob pushed me off of the doorstep. 

4. This subject is worthy your consideration. 

5. I went out for to have a walk. 

6. These oranges are not for me, but you. 

7. What use is that to me? 

8. Lend to me your knife for a while. 

9. I bought three bushels of timothy seed off of Neighbor Clark. 

10. The citizens presented him with a library. 

11. What for book is that you are reading? 

12. I will not go without you go. 

13. Where did he get all these sentences from? 

14. He said for me to wait here till he returned, but I will not 
wait on him any longer. 

15. Listen at what he is telling the boys. 

16. We then turned the conversation on our text-books, and asked 
of him whose reader he read out of. 

17. He worked very hard for to accomplish his purpose. 

1 8. Two beside Helen were promoted. 

19. She and her friend must decide among themselves what it is 
best to do. 

20. Charles would make more rapid progress if he would not 
spend his time by doing other things instead of studying. 

21. At what store do you go to? 

22. Three times five equals to fifteen. 

23. They were thrown onto- a pile in the middle of the field. 

24. Go in the house and warm your cold feet. 

25. Time and tide wait on nobody. 

26. He said for me to lock the door. 

27. She put a nice slice of ham between each piece of buttered bread. 

28. Two beside him have fled. 

29. From what source does petroleum come from ? 



256 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

30. A good place to see different kinds of wild animals is at the 
Zoological Gardens in Philadelphia. 

31. He lives at Chicago, in a large hotel. 

32. There is nothing to hinder him going to school every day. 

33. Had you ever met with his father before ? 

34. I agree with the plan you propose. 

35. Where are you going to? 

36. I am going to the store and post-office. 

37. It was nearly the size of a walnut. 

38. The shower came onto us almost before we knew it. 

39. My son lately moved in a new house. 

40. Harriet Beeche'r Stowe lives South in the winter. 

41. John and James were given thirty-eight cents for to divide 
equally among themselves. 

42. One-half of thirty-eight equals to nineteen. 

43. He accused me for making the disturbance. 



LESSON 121. 

INTERJECTIONS. 

Define an interjection. (See Lesson 8.) 

Interjections never have any grammatical connection 
with the sentence or expression in which they occur ; that 
is, they are always independent. 

Some interjections are words never used as other parts 
of speech ; as, ah I alas ! oh ! etc. 

But any word or group of words used solely to express 
emotion becomes an interjection, regardless of its ordinary 



1 Their presence in the sentence is much like the presence of spectators 
in Congress, who are not members of the body, but only interested 
lookers-on, having no voice in the proceedings except to hiss and applaud. 
— Lockwood. 

An interjection is not in the proper sense a "part of speech," since it 
does not combine with other "parts" to form that whole which we call 
a sentence. — Whitney. 



INTERJECTIONS— CLASSES OF. 257 

1. A noun may become an interjection ; as, Peace ! Be still. 

2. A pronoun may become an interjection ; as, What ! you weep. 

3. An adjective may become an interjection; as, Welcome! 

4. A verb may become an interjection ; as, Beliold ! the dreamer 
cometh. 

5. An adverb may become an interjection ; as, Away ! 

6. Phrases and other expressions may become interjections ; as, 
Dear me ! On my conscience I I declare ! 

All exclamatory expressions except the exclamatory sen- 
tence are interjectional ; that is, they are expressions thrown 
in, having no grammatical relation with the rest of the sen- 
tence, and being used chiefly to express emotion. They 
may, therefore, be treated as interjections. 

In the sentence, "Hark I" said the leader, the interjec- 
tion is quoted, and therefore becomes a noun, the object 
complement of said ; but in thought it is still an interjec- 
tion, — an emotion word. 

In the sentence, "Strike" is a verb, we have a similar 
use of the quoted word strike. 

Some interjections that are now written as single words are con- 
tractions or corruptions of phrases or short sentences. 

1. Farewell, a contraction of fare -\- well, originally meant May you 
speed, or journey, well, or safely. 

2. Good-bye, thought to be a corruption of God be with you. 

3. Marry, an interjection much used in Shakespeare's time, from by 
St. Mary. 

4. Zounds, from by God's wounds. 

5. Egad, from by God. 

6. Prithee, from I pray thee. 

7. Alas, from Italian Ah! lasso = Ah, miserable (me). 

8. Oh dear, from Italian Bio = God. 

9. Oh dear me, from Italian Bio mio = my God. 

There are three kinds of interjections : 
1. Those that express pure emotion ; as, Oh ! ah ! 
to express wonder or surprise ; woe ! alas! to express pain 

17 



258 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

or grief; pshaw ! ugh! to express disgust, regret, or aver- 
sion. 

2. Those that express emotion mixed with thought ; 
as, Hush! hark! whist! to enjoin silence; lo ! behold! to 
call attention ; seat ! to startle the cat ; pig ! pig ! to call 
the pigs ; haw ! gee ! to guide beasts of burden. 

3. Those that are imitations of sounds; as, Boiv- 
wow ! to imitate a dog's bark ; quack ! quack ! to imitate 
the noise of ducks ; ding ! dong ! to imitate the noise of a 
bell ; tick ! tick ! to imitate the noise of a time-piece. 

Parsing of Interjections. 

In parsing interjections we have only to name them, and 
tell to which class they belong. 

1. Hark! on the winds the bell's deep tones are swelling. 
Model. — Hark is an interjection of verb origin, and belongs to the 

second class, as it enjoins silence. 

Parse the interjections in the following expressions : — 

2. On, Stanley, on ! 3. Remorseless Time ! fierce spirit of the glass 
and scythe! 4. Alas! and did my Saviour bleed? 5. "What silly 
mice!" said Charlie. 6. "Cluck! cluck!" the old hen called. 7. 
Bow-wow ! Do you see me? I'm the little dog Dime. 8. Oil ! drop 
the briny tear with me. 

Errors in the Use of Interjections. 

Using interjections to excess is the most common error 
in their use. Exaggeration in the expression of emotion 
is perhaps the worst and most common kind of exaggeration 
in the use of language, and is generally an indication of 
mental vacuity. Nothing in speech can be less interesting, 
nor more repulsive (profanity excepted), than to hear some 
one exclaim at every turn of conversation, "My days!" 
"Law sakes!" " Sakes alive!" " Goodness gracious!" 
"My goodness!" "Of all things !" "Oh my!" "Indeed!" 
" You dont say so !" 



LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 



259 



A LIST 

OF 

IRREGULAR VERBS. 

Verbs that have more than one form in the past tense or 
past participle are called Redundant Verbs (see awake). 

Those that are wanting in any of the principal parts are 
called Defective Verbs (see may, must, ought). 

All forms printed in italics are obsolete. 

The present participle is omitted from these principal 
parts to save space. 



Present. 


Past. 


Past Par. 


Present. 


Past. 


Past Par. 


Abide, 


abode, 


abode. 


Bespread, 


bespread, 


bespread. 


Arise, 
Awake, 
Be, or am, 


arose, 
J awoke, \ 
\ awaked, j 

was, 


arisen. 

awaked. 

been. 


Bestrew, 
Bestride, 


bestrewed, 
bestrode, 


f bestrown. 
1 bestrewed. 
j bestrid 
( bestridden. 


Bear, 


/bore, ) 
\ bare, / 


horn. 1 
borne. 


Bet, 


/bet, \ 
(betted,/ 


/bet. 
X betted. 


Beat, 


beat, 


[beaten. 
1 beat. 


Betake, 


betook, 


betaken. 


Bethink, 


bethought, 


bethought. 


Become, 


became, 


become. 


Bid, 


/ hade, ) 
Ibid, j 


J bidden 
(bid. 


Befall, 


befell, 


befallen. 




/ begat, ) 
1 begot, J 


f begot. 
{ begotten. 


Bide, 


bode, 


bo<ie. 


ege , 


Bind, 


bound, 


bound. 


Begin, 


began, 


begun. 


Bite, 


bit, 


/b : tten. 
t bit. 
bled. 


Begird, 


/ begirt. \ 
\ begirded, £ 


begirt. 


Bleed, 


bled, 


Behold, 


beheld, 


beheld.2 


Blend, 


/blent. 1 

t blended, / 


/blent. 
( blended. 


Bend, 


(bent, 1 
( bended, j 


/ bent, 
(bended. 


Bless, 


(blest, ) 
t blessed, / 


/ blest, 
j blessed. 


Bereave, 


f bereft, \ 
j bereaved,/ 


f bereft. 


\ bereaved. 


Blow, 


blew, 


blown. 


Beseech, 


besought, 


besought. 


Br ak 


f broke, ) 
Xbrake, / 


/broken. 
( broke. 


Beset, 


beset, 


beset. 


' 


Bespeak, 


bespoke, 


/ bespoke. 
| bespoken. 


Breed, 
Bring, 


bred, 
brought, 


bred, 
brought. 



1 The word bear has two forms for the past participle differing in use : 
the one, borne, is used in the active voice for all meanings of the word, 
but in the passive only in the sense of carried ; the other form, born, is 
used only in the passive voice, ^nd then only in the sense of brought 
forth. 

2 Beholden was formerly a past participle of behold, but is now used only 
as an adjective. 



260 



PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



Present. 
Build, 

Burn, 

Burst, 

Buy, 

Can, 

Cast, 

Catch, 

Chide, 

Choose, . 
Cleave (to 
adhere), 

Cleave (to 
split), 

Climb, 

Cling, 

Clothe, 

Come, 

Cost, 

Creep, 

Crow, 

Curse, 

Cut, 
Dare (to 

venture), 
Deal, 

Dig, 

Do, 

Draw, 

Dream, 

Dress, 

Drink, 

Drive, 

Dwell, 

Eat, 

Engrave, 

Fall, 

Feed, 

Feel, 

Fight, 

Find,' 



if: 



Past. 

built, 
f burnt, 
I burned, 

burst, 

bought, 

could, 

cast, 

caught, 
f chid, 1 
| chode, } 

chose, 
} cleaved, 
( clave, 

clove, 

cleft, 
i [clave, 
( climbed, \ 
( clomb, } 

clung, 
/ clad, \ 
t clothed, } 

came, 

cost, 

crept, 
[crew, ) 
(crowed,} 
/ curst, 1 
( cursed, j 

cut, 
(durst. \ 
| dared, } 

dealt, 

1 digged, / 

did, 

drew, 
( dreamt, ] 
1 dreamed, j 
(drest, I 
X dressed, J 
(drank, | 
{drunk, J 
(drove, I 
\drave, } 
(dwelt, ) 
1 dwelled, } 
fate,) 
( eat, | 

engraved, 

fell, 

fed, 

felt, 

fought, 

found, 



Past Par. 

built, 
(burned, 
(burnt. 

burst. 

bought. 



cast. 

caught, 
/chidden. 
\ chid. 

chosen. 

cleaved. 

f cleft. 
-< cleaved, 
(cloven. 
( climbed. 
( clomb. 

clung, 
(clad. 
( clothed. 

come. 

cost. 

crept. 

crowed. 

crown. 
(curst, 
(cursed. 

cut. 

dared. 

dealt, 
(dug. 

(digged. 

done. 

drawn, 
(dreamt. 
X dreamed, 
(drest. 
( dressed, 
(drunk, 
(drank. 

driven. 

(dwelt. 
( dwelled. 

eaten. 

(engraven. 
( engraved. 

fallen. 

fed. 

felt. 

fought. 

found. 



Present. 
Flee, 
Fling, 
Fly, 
Forbear, 

Forbid, 

Foreknow, 

Forerun, 

Foresee, 

Foreshow, 

Foretell, 

Forget, 

Forgivej 

Forsake, 

Forswear, 

Freeze, 

Gainsay, 

Geld, 

Get, 

Gild, 

Gird, 

Give, 
Go, 

Grave, 

Grind, 
Grow, 

Hang, 

Have, 
Hear, 

Heave, 
Hew, 

Hide, 

Hit, 

Hold, 

Hurt, 
Inlay, 
Keep, 

Kneel, 

Knit, 
Know, 



Past. 

fled, 

flung, 

flew, 
( forbore, | 
X'/orbare, / 

forbade, 

foreknew, 

foreran, 

foresaw, 

foreshowed, 

foretold, 

forgot, 

forgave, 

forsook, 

forswore, 

froze, 

gainsaid, 
f gelded, ) 
tgelt, } 

got, 

(gilt, > 
1 gilded,} 

(girt, ) 
(girded,/ 

gave, 

went, 

graved, 

ground, 

grew, 
(hung, "I 
(hanged,/ 

had, 

heard, 
( hove, ) 
( heaved, } 

hewed, 

hid, 
hit, 
held, 

hurt, 

inlaid, 

kept, 
(knelt, I 
(kneeled,} 
(knit, ( 
X knitted,} 

knew. 



Past Par. 
fled. 

flung, 
flown. 

forborne. 

f forbidden. 
\ forbid. 

foreknown. 

forerun. 

foreseen. 

foreshown. 

foretold, 
(forgotten. 
( forgot. 

forgiven. 

forsaken. 

forsworn. 

frozen. 

gainsaid, 
f gelded, 
tgelt. 
(got. 
( gotten. 
(gilt. 
X gilded. 

(girt. 
I girded. 

given. 

gone. 
( graven, 
(graved. 

ground. 

grown, 
(hung. 
( hanged. 

had. 

heard. 
( hove. 
( heaved. 

( hewed. 
( hewn, 
(hid. 
( hidden. 

hit. 
(held. 
( holden. 1 

hurt. 

inlaid. 

kept, 
(knelt. 
( kneeled, 
/knit, 
(knitted. 

known. 



1 Obsolete except in legal writings. 



LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 



261 



Past Par. 
f permed. 
\pent. 

prepaid, 
put. 
/ quit. 

'(quitted. 




I Shred, 



f shone. 

) sinned. 
shod, 
shot- 
shown. 
showed. 

shied. 



1 Lighted preferred. 



262 



PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



Present. 
Shrink, 
Shut, 
Sing, 

Sink, 

Sit, 

Slay, 

Sleep, 

Slide, 

Sling, 

Slink, 

Slit, 

Smell, 

Smi i e, 

Sow, 

Speak, 

Speed, 

Spell, 

Spend, 

Spill, 

Spin, 

Spit, 

Split, 

Spoil, 

Spread, 

Spring, 

Stand, 

Stave, 

Stay, 

Steal, 
Siiek, 
Sting, 
Stink, 

Strew, 

Stride, 



Past. 
( shrunk, ) 
( shrank, j 

shut, 
(sang, ) 

( Sllllit, J 

J sunk, ) 
( sank, j 

sat, 

slew, 

slept, 

slid, 

f slung, "I 
\ slang, j 
/ s'.unk, ) 
\slank, ] 
/slit, I 
(slitted, J 
fsmeU, ] 
jsmelled, j 

smote, 

sowed, 

f spoke, ) 
( spake, J 

sped, 
f spell, ] 
( spelled, j 

spend, 
f spilt, 1 
(spilled, j 
(spun, ) 
( span, J 
(spit 1 
I *pat, ) 
fsplit. ") 

splitted V 
u (rare , j 



Past Par. 
/shrunk, 
j shrunken, 
shut. 

sung. 

/sunk. 
( sunken. 

sat. 

slain. 

slept, 
/slidden. 
t slid. 

slung. 

slunk. 

/slit. 

( slitted. 

/smelt. 

(smelled. 

/ smitten. 

I smit (rarely). 

J sown. 

(sowed. 

spoken. 

sped, 
/spelt. 
I spelled. 

spent, 
/spilt. 
( spilled. 

spun. 



fspiit. ) r 

■< splitted V < 
((rare, j ( 

/spoilt 
( spoiled, 
spread. 



/sprung, I 
\ sprang, J 

stood, 
/stove, 1 
| staved, j 
/staid, } 
\ stayed, j 

sto e, 

stuck, 

stung, 
f stunk, 1 
( stank, ) 

strewed, 

/strode ) 
slrid, f 



spit. 

split, 
splitted 
(rare). 

spoilt. 

spoiled. 

spread. 

sprung. 

stood. 

stove. 

staved. 

staid. 

stayed. 

stolen. 

stuck, 

stung, 

stunk. 

strewn, 
strewed, 
stridden. 
strid. 



Present. 

Strike, 

String, 
Strive, 

Strow, 

Swear, 

Swen t, ■ 

Sweep, 

Swell, 

Swim, 

Swing, 

Take, 

Teach, 

Tear, 

Tell, 
Think, 

Thrive, 

Throw, 
Thrust, 

Toss, 

Tread, 

Unbend, 

Unbind, 

Undergo, 

Understand, 

Undertake, 

Undo, 

Ungird, 

Unlade \ 
(unload), j 
Unsay, 
Unweave, 
Uphold, 



Past. 
struck, 

strung, 
strove, 

strowed, 



Uprise, 
Upset, 

Wake, 



Wax, 
Wear, 
Weave, 

Wed, 
Weep, 



f swore, ) 
\sware, j 
/ sweat, ) 
( sweated, j 
swept, 

swelled, 

/swam, ) 
(swum,/ 

swung, 

took, 

taught, 

/ tore, \ 
\ tare, ; 

told, 

thou ht, 
/thrived, ) 
( throve, / 

threw, 

thrust, 

tossed, 

trod, 

unbent, 

unbound, 

underwent, 

understood 

undertook, 

undid. 

ungirded, ) 
ungirt, j 

unladed, 

unsaid, 

unwove, 

upheld, 

uprose, 
upset, 
' waked, ) 
woke, J 

waxed, 

wore, 

wove, 

wedded, 
wept, 



Past Par. 
/ struck. 
( stricken. 

strung. 
striven. 

/strow n. 
( strowed. 

sworn. 

( sweat. 
( sweated. 

swept. 
( swelled. 
( swollen. 

swum. 

swung, 
taken, 
taught, 

torn. 

told. 

thought. 
( thriven. 
\ thrived. 

thrown. 

thrust. 

tossed, 
/trodden. 
( trod. 

unbent. 

unbound. 

undergone. 

understood. 

undertaken. 

undone. 

( ungirded. 
I ungirt. 
( unladed. 
X unladen. 

unsaid. 

unwoven. 
( upheld. 
( upholden. 

uprisen. 

upset. 
J waked. 
1 woke. 

f waxen. 
\ waxed. 

worn. 
/ wove. 
( woven. 
/ wedded. 
( wed. 

wept. 



ABBREVIATIONS. 



263 



Present. 
Wet, 

Will, 

Win, 

Wind, 

Withdraw, 

Withhold, 

Withstand, withstood, withstood. 



Past. 


Past Par. 


wet, \ 
wetted, j 


f wet. 
( wetted. 


would, 


. 


won, 


won. 


wound, 


wuund. 


withdrew, 


withdrawn. 


withheld, 


f withheld. 
( withholden 



Present. 
Wont, 



Work, 

(to) wit, 
wot 

Wring, 
Write, 



'it,) 

•JOl,} 



Past. 
wont, 

/wrought, 
1 worked, 



wrung, 
wringed, 



Past Par 
wont, 
wonted. 

wrought. 

worked. 



wrung, 
w ringed. 



Abbreviations. 



Account, Ace, or Acct. 

Adjective, A., or a. 

Adjutant, Adjt. 

Adverb, Ad., or adv. 

Afternoon, P. M. (p. m. used in 

time-tables, etc.). 
Against, vs., or v. (versus). 
Alabama, Ala., or Al. 
Alexander, Alex. 
Amount, Ami. 
Andrew, And. 
And so forth, and others, &c. or etc. 

(et csetera). 
Anglo-Saxon, A. S., or A. Sax. 
Anonymous, Anon. 
Answer, Ans. 
Appendix, App. 

April, Apr. (seldom abbreviated). 
Archbishop, Abp. 
Arizona Territory, Ar. Ter. 
Arkansas, Ark. 
Article, Art. 
Assistant, Asst. 

At pleasure, ad lib. (ad libitum). 
Attorney, Ait, or Atty. 
Attorney General, Atty. Gen. 
August, Aug. 

Bachelor of Arts, A. B., or B. A. 
Bachelor of Divinity, B. D. 
Bachelor of Laws, LL.B. 



Bachelor of Science, B. S. 

Baronet, Bart. 

Barrel, barrels, Bbl., or bbl. 

Before Christ, B. C. 

Before noon, A. M. (a. m. used in 
time-tables, etc.). 

Benjamin, Benj. 

Bishop, Bp. 

Book, Bk. 

Brigadier, Brig. 

Brother, Bro., plural, Bros. 

Bushel or Bushels, Bush., bush., or 
bu. 

By the hundred, Per cent., per cent., 
Per ct, or per ct. (per centum). 

California, Cal. 

Canada, Can. 

Capital, Cap., plural, Caps. 

Captain, Capt. 

Cent, Ct., or ct., plural, Cts., or cts. 

Centigrade, C, or Cent, (ther- 
mometer). 

Chapter or chapters, Oh., chap., or 
Cap. (caput). 

Charles, Chas. 

Christmas, Xmas. 

Chronicles, Chron. 

Civil Engineer, C. E. 

Collect on Delivery, C. 0. D. 

Colonel, Col. 



264 



PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



Colorado, Col. 

Colossians, Col. 

Company, Co. 

Connecticut, Conn., Con., or Ct. 

Corinthians, Cor. 

Court House, C. H. 

Cubic feet, cu.ft. 

Cubic inches, cu. in. 

Dakota Territory, D. Ter. 

Day, days, D., or d. 

Debtor, Dr. 

December, Dec. 

Delaware, Del. 

District of Columbia, D. C. 

Doctor of Civil Law, D C. L. 

Doctor of Divinity, D. D. 

Doctor of Laws, LL.D. 

Doctor of Medieine, M. D. 

Doctor of Philosophy, Ph. D. 

Dozen, Doz., or doz. 

E^st, E. 

Editor, Ed., plural, Eds. 

Edition, Ed., or ed. 

England, Eng. 

Esquire, Esq. 

Example, Ex. 

Fahrenheit, F. or Fahr. (ther- 
mometer). 

February, Feb. 

Fellow of the Koyal Society, F. 
R.S. 

Figure or figures, Fig., or Jigs. 

Florida, Fla. 

Foot or feet, Ft., or ft. 

For example, e. g. (exempli gratia). 

Friday, Fri. 

Furlong, Fur., or fur. 

Galatians, Gal. 

Gallon or gallons, Gal., or gal. 

General, Gen. 

Genesis, Gen. 



Gentleman, Gent. 

George, Geo. 

Georgia, Ga. 

Governor, Gov. 

Grain or grains, Gr., or gr. 

Grammar, Gram. 

Greek, Gr. 

Gross, Gro., gro., or Gr. 

Handkerchief, Hdkf, or hdkf. 

Hogshead or hogsheads, Hhd., or 

hhd. 
Honorable, Hon. 
Hour or hours, H, or h. 
Idaho Territory, Id. Ter. 
Illinois, III. 
Indiana, Ind. 

Indian Territory, Ind. Ter. 
Indicative, Ind., or ind. 
Infinitive, Inf., or inf. 
Interest, Int., or int. 
Interjection, Interj., or iaterj. 
In the same place, lb., ib., Ibid., or 

ibid, (ibidem). 
In the year of our Lord, A. D. 

(Anno Domini). 
Intransitive, Intrans., or intrans. 
Instant (the present month) inst. 
Iowa, la. 
January, Jan. 
Joseph, Jos- 
July, Jul. (seldom abbreviated). 
June, Jun. (seldom abbreviated). 
Junior, Jun.,jun., Jr., or jr. 
Kansas, Kan., or Ks. 
Kentucky, Ky. 
Latitude, Lai, or lat. 
Lieutenant, Lieut. 
Literature, Lit. 
Long Island, L. I. 
Longitude, Long., or long. 
Louisiana, La. 



ABBREVIATIONS. 



265 



Madame, 3Ime. 

Maine, Me. 

Manuscript, 31s., plural, 3Iss. 

March, Mar. (seldom abbreviated). 

Maryland, Md. 

Massachusetts, Mass. 

Master of Arts, A. 31, or 31 A. 

Member of Congress, 31. C. 

Member of Parliament, 31. P. 

Messieurs (Gentlemen), 3fessrs. 

Michigan, 3Iich. 

Minnesota, Minn. 

Missouri, 3Io. 

Mississippi, 3Iiss. 

Mister, 3Ir. 

Mistress, 3Irs. (pronounced mio- 
sis when written as an abbre- 
viation). 

Monday, 31 (rare). 

Montana Territory, 31. Ter. 

Month, 3Io., or mo., plural, 3Ios., 
or mos. 

Mount or Mountain, 3It., plural, 
Mis. 

Mythology, Myth. 

Nebraska, Neb. 

Nevada, Nev. 

New Hampshire, N. H. 

New Jersey, N. J. 

New Mexico, New 31. 

New Style, N. S. 

New York, N. Y. 

North Carolina, N. C. 

North-East, N E. 

North- West, N. W. 

Notary Public, N P. 

November, Nov. 

Number, No., or no., plural, Nos., 
or nos. 

October, Oct. 

Ohio, 0. 



Old Style, 0. S. 

Oregon, Or. 

Ounce or ounces, Oz., or oz. 

Page, P., or p., plural, pp. 

Participle, Part., or part. 

Payment, Payt, or payt. 

Peck, Pk., or ph., plural, Pks., or 
pks. 

Pennsylvania, Penn , or Pa. 

Pennyweight, Pwt, or pivt. 

Pint or pints, PL, or pt. 

Population, Pop. 

Post-Master, P. 31. 

Post-Office, P. 0. 

Postscript, P. S. 
\ Pounds Sterling, L., I., or £. 

Preface, Pre/. 

President, Pres. 

Professor, Prof. 

Proximo, Prox., or prox. (next 
month). 

Quart, Qt., or qt., plural, Qts., or 
qts. 

Question, Q., or ques. 

Railroad, B. B. 

Remark or remarks, Bern. 

Report, Representative, Republi- 
can, Bep. 

Reverend, Bev. 

Rhode Island, B. I. 

Right Honorable, Bt. Hon 

Right Reverend, Bt. Bev. 

Rod or rods, B., r., or rd. 

Saturday, Sat. 

Second or seconds, Sec, or sec. 

Section, Sec, or sec 

September, Sep., or Sept. 

South, S. 

South Carolina, S. C. 

South- East, S. E. 

South- West, S. W. 



266 



PRACTICAL LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



Specific Gravity, sp. gr. 

Square foot or feet, Sq.ft., or sq./L 

Square inch or inches, Sq. in., or 

sq. in. 
Square mile or miles, Sq. m., or 

sq. m. 
Square rods or rods, Sq. r., or sq. r. 
Square yard, Sq. yd., or sq. yd., 

plural Sq. yds., or sq. yds. 
Sunday, Sun., or Sund. 
Sunday-school, S. S. 
Superintendent, Sapt. 
Synonym, Syn. 
Tennessee, Tenn. 
Territory, Ter. 
1 ex as, Tex. 
That is, i. e. (id est). 
Thursday, Th. 

To wit, namely, viz. (videlicet). 
Ton or tons, T. 
Treasurer, Treas. 
Tuesday, Tues. 

Ultimo, Ult.,orult. (last month). 
United States Army, U. S. A. 
United States Military Academy, 

U. S. M. A. 



United States Naval Academy, U. 

S. N. A. 
United States Navy, U. S. N. 
University, Univ. 
Utah Territory, U. T. 
Verb, V., or v. 
Vermont, Vt 
Versus. See Against, 
Vice President, Vice Pres., or V. 

Pres. 
Virginia, Va. 
Volume, Vol., or vol., plural, Vols., 

or vols. 
Washington, Wash. 
Wednesday, Wed. 
Week or weeks, W., iv., Wk., or wk. 
Weight, Wt., or ivt. 
West, W. 

West Indies, W. I. 
West Virginia, W. Va. 
William, Wm. 
Wisconsin, Wis. 
Wyoming Territory, Wyo. T. 
Yard, Yd., or yd., plural, Yds., or 

yds. 
Year or years, Y., or yr. 



INDEX. 



[The numbers refer to pages.] 



A, feminine termination, 132. 
A, before a group of words, 219. 
Abbreviation, definition of, 128. 
period with, 128. 
list of, 259. 
Above, as an adjective, 218. 
Absolute phrase, definition of, 59. 

noun clause with, 83. 
Adjective, definition of, 24. 
classes of, 218. 
indirect modifier, 69. 
number of, 220. 
in compounds, 220. 
comparison of, 221. 
parsing of, 225. 
errors in use of, 226. 
position of, 226. 
Adjective clause, definition, 87; 
punctuation of, 93. 
position of, 94. 
restrictive, 171. 
Adjective pronoun, 
definition of, 157. 
peculiarities of, 168. 
Adverb, definition of, 24. 
may modify what, 24, 232; 
classes of, 233. 
parsing of, 238. 
errors in use of, 239. 
Adverb clauses, kinds of, 96-98. 

punctuation of, 104. 
Adverbial noun, 45. 
A few and a little, 219. 



A liundred, as one adjective, 219. 
American Indian, words from, 6. 
Analysis, definition of, 21. 

extracts for, 106. 
Angle-land, 3. 
Angles, the, 3. 
Anglo-Saxon, 3. 
Antecedent, definition of, 17. 

agreement with, 170. 
Apostrophe, with plurals, 140. 

with possessives, 148. 
Appositive, definition of, 42. 

infinitive so used, 55. 

participle so used, 59. 

noun clause so used, 83. 
Arabic, words from, 6. 
Articles, 219. 
Aryan language, 2. 
As, a relative pronoun, 89, 165. 

other uses of, 101. 
As if and as tJiough, 245. 
As to, a preposition, 84. 
As well as, a conjunction, 77. 
Auxiliary verbs, 186, 204. 

Be, conjugation of, 191. 

Between, use of, 255. 

But, a relative pronoun, 89, 165. 

other uses of, 102. 
By, as a suffix, 5. 

Capital letter, 

beginning sentences, 14. 
267 



268 



INDEX. 



Capital letter, 

beginning words, 17. 
the pronoun T, 18. 
in compound names, 127. 
Case, with nouns, 147. 

definition of, 158. 

with pronouns, 158. 
Celts, the people, 3. 

words from, 5. 
Chinese, words from, 6. 
Christianity, introduction of, 3. 
Clause, definition of, 73. 

noun clause, 82. 

adjective clause, 87. 

adverb clause, 96. 
Colon, 

with independent expressions, 68. 

with quotations, 86. 
Comma, with phrases, 22. 

with appositives, 42. 

with a series, 48. 

with pairs, 49. 

with independent expressions, 68. 

with independent clauses, 77. 

with noun clauses, 86. 

with adjective clauses, 93, 94. 

after a logical subject, 95. 

with adverb clauses, 104. 
Common noun, 17. 
Comparative degree, 
of adjectives, 221. 
of adverbs, 237. 
Comparison of adjectives, 221. 

of adverbs, 237. 

irregular, 223, 237. 
Complements, kinds of, 31. 

infinitive so used, 53. 

participle so used, 58. 

noun clause so used, 82. 

case of, 159. 
Complex sentence, 74. 
Composition, 

how to write one, 79. 

additional exercises, 121. 



Compound adverbs, 234. 
Compound nouns, 

proper names, 127. 
plurals of, 138. 
Compound subject, 26. 

predicate, 26. 

sentence, 26. 
Conquest, the Norman, 4. 
Conjugation, definition of, 186. 

common conjugation, 187. 

conjugation of he, 191. 

progressive conjugation, 193. 

passive conjugation, 196. 

emphatic forms, 195. 

interrogative forms, 195. 
Conjunction, definition of, 26. 

uses of, 101. 

classes of, 243. 

parsing of, 247. 

errors in use of, 248. 
Conjunctive adverb, 90, 234. 
Contents, vii., viii. 
Correlative connectives, 245. 

Danes, the people, 4. 

words from, 5. 
Dash, independent expressions, 68. 
Declarative sentence, 12. 
Declension of pronouns, 160. 
Defective verbs, 259. 
Demonstrative adjective, 218. 
Dependent clause, 74, 82. 
Descriptive adjective, 

definition, 218. 

used as a noun, 220. 
Definitive adjective, 

definition of, 218. 

used as a noun, 220. 
Diagram, definition of, 29. 
value of, 29. 

Each and other, as a pronoun, 43. 

Either and or, 76. 

En, old plural termination, 138. 



INDEX. 



269 



English language, 

definition of, 10. 
Errors in the use of nouns, 154. 

in the use of pronouns, 169. 

in the use of verbs, 206. 

in the use of adjectives, 226. 

in the use of adverbs, 239. 

in the use of conjunctions, 248. 

in the use of prepositions, 254. 

in the use of interjections, 258. 
Es, plural termination, 135. 
Ess, feminine termination, 131. 
Exclamation mark, rule, 14, 27. 
Exclamatory sentence, 13. 

False syntax. (See "Errors.") 
Foots, a plural of foot, 138. 
Foreign nouns, plurals of, 144. 
French, words from, 6. 

Gender of nouns, 130. 

of pronouns, 158. 
German, words from, 6. 
Grammar, English, 

definition of, 10. 
Greek, words from, 6. 

Hare's, Archdeacon, views, 40. 
Hebrew, words from, 6. 
Hindu, words from, 6. 
Hyphen, in compound words, 127. 

Idea, definition of, 9. 
Idiom, 200. 
If, uses of, 101, 102. 
Imperative mode, 183. 
Imperative sentence, 12, 13. 
Ina and ine, gender termina- 
tions, 131. 
Independent clause, 

definition of, 74. 

punctuation of, 77. 
Independent words and phrases, 
65. 



Index, 267-272. 

Indian, American, words from, 6. 
Indirect object, 37. 
Indicative mode, 182, 187. 
Infinitive, definition of, 52. 

to, not a part of, 52. 

uses of, 53-55. 
Inflection, 129. 
Inseparable adverb, 85, 234. 
Interjection, definition of, 27. 

classes of, 258. 

parsing of, 258. 

errors in use of, 258. 
Interrogation mark, rule for, 14. 
Interrogative adjective, 218. 
Interrogative adverb, 233. 
Interrogative pronoun, 167. 
Interrogative sentence, 12, 13. 
Intransitive verb, definition, 177. 
has no voice, 196. 
made transitive, 202. 
Introduction, 1. 
Introductory word, 36. 
Irregular verb, definition of, 178. 

list of, 259. 
Ish, degree termination, 222. 
Italian, words from, 6. 
It, peculiar uses of, 162. 
Its, origin of, 161. 

Just, modifying a conj., 24, 100. 

Kine, plural of cow, 138. 

Language, definition of, 10. 

origin of, 1. 

relationship of, 1. 

the Aryan, 2. 

the Semitic, 2. 
Last and latest, 223. 
Latin, words from the, 5. 
Latter and later, 223. 
Lesser, double comparative, 223. 
Lest, uses of, 102. 



270 



INDEX. 



Letters, plurals of, 139. 
Letter-writing, 111. 
Lihe, uses of, 102. 
Little, denoting quantity, 223. 

Many a, 221. 
MetlUriks, 162. 
Mode, definition of, 182. 

the indicative mode, 182, 187. 

the potential mode, 182, 188. 

the subjunctive mode, 183, 188. 

the imperative mode, 183. 

errors in, 212: 
Modification, definition of, 130. 
Modifier, definition of, 19. 

indirect, 69. 
More than, as an adverb, 99. 
Most, suffix with superlatives, 223. 
My and mine, use of, 161. 

Near, as a preposition, 67. 
Next, superlative of nltjh, 224. 
Nominative case, 159. 
Norman Conquest, 4. 
Noun, definition of, 16. 

classes of, 17, 125. 

gender of, 130. 

number of, 135. 

uses of, 146. 

possessive forms of, 148. 

case of, 147. 

foreign plurals, 144. 

errors in use of, 154. 
Noun clause, uses of, 82. 

punctuation of, 85. 
Number, of nouns, 135. 

of pronouns, 158. 

of verbs, 182, 208. 

of adjectives, 220. 
Numeral adjective, 218. 

Object complement, 

definition of, 32. 
infinitive so used, 53. 



Object complement, 

participle so used, 58. 

noun clause so used, 82. 
Object, definition of, 177. 
Objective complement, 

definition of, 32. 

infinitive so used, 53. 

participle so used, 58. 

noun clause so used, 82. 
Objective case, 159. 
Obsolete forms of the pro- 
noun, 160. 

of the verb, 189. 
One and other, 168, 172. 

Paragraph, 51. 
Paraphrase, 122. 
Parenthesis, 66, 68, 76. 
Parsing, definition of, 153. 

of nouns, 153. 

of verbs, 205. 

of pronouns, 168. 

of adjectives, 225. 

of adverbs, 238. 

of conjunctions, 247. 

of prepositions, 253. 

of interjections, 258. 
Participle, definition of, 57. 

uses of, 58. 

classes of, 57. 
Passive voice, 196. 
Period, with sentences, 14. 

with abbreviations, 128. 
Persian, words from, 6. 
Person of pronouns, 158. 

of verbs, 208. 
Personal pronoun, 
definition of, 157. 
declension of, 160. 
compound, 161. 
Personification, 149, 163. 
Phrase, definition of, 21. 

as objective complement, 72. 
Pleonasm, 67, 169. 



INDEX. 



271 



Plurals of nouns, 135. 

of pronouns, 158. 

of verbs, 182, 208. 

of adjectives, 220. 
Possession, definition of, 147. 

sign of, 147, 152. 
Possessive, definition of, 39. 

sign of, 40, 147, 

no apostrophe with pronouns, 40. 

Archdeacon Hare's views, 40, 

without its noun, 71. 

to prevent ambiguity, 172, 
Potential mode, 182, 188. 
Predicate, definition of, 15, 

simple, 20. 

compound, 26. 

modified 20. 
Preface, iii. 
Preposition, definition of, 22. 

classes of, 249. 

choice of, 250. 

parsing of, 253. 

errors in use of, 254. 

near as a preposition, 67. 
Principal parts of the verb, 186. 
Pronominal adverb, 61, 235. 
Pronoun, definition of, 17. 

classes of, 157. 

case of, 158. 

personal, 157, 161. 

relative, 88, 166. 

interrogative, 167. 

adjective, 168. 

parsing of, 168. 

errors in use of, 169. 
Pronunciation, rules for, 6, 7, 8. 
Punctuation, 

comma. (See "Comma.") 

colon, 68, 86. 

semicolon, 77. 

parenthesis, 68. 

dash, 68. 

period, 14, 128. 

exclamation mark, 14, 27. 



Punctuation, 

interrogation mark, 14. 
quotation marks, 85. 
Proper noun, 17, 125. 

Question mark, 14. 
Quotations, kinds of, 85. 
punctuation of, 85. 

Regular verb, definition of, 178. 
Redundant verbs, 259. 
Relative pronoun, 

definition of, 88. 
compound, 91, 165. 
but as a relative, 89, 165. 
as as a relative, 89, 165. 
reference of, 166. 
peculiarities of, 166. 
errors in the use of, 170. 
become adjectives, 218. 

S, plural termination, 135. 
Semicolon, 77. 
Semitic language, 2. 
Sentence, definition of, 10. 

classes of, 12, 13. 

compound, 26. 

complex, 74. 
Since, uses of, 102. 
Smaller and smallest, 223. 
So, used pronominally, 64. 
So that, compound conjunction, 

100. 
Spanish, words from, 6. 
Spelling, English, 6. 

rules for, 221. 
Ster, feminine termination, 131. 
Staff, two plurals of, 136. 
Subject, definition of, 14. 

simple and modified, 20. 

comma after, 95. 

compound, 26. 
Subjunctive mode, 183, 188. 
Swine, plural of sow, 138. 
Syntax, false. (See " Errors.") 



272 



INDEX. 



Tense, definition of tenses, 180. 

errors in use of, 213. 
Teutons, home of, 2. 
Than as a preposition, 254. 
That , uses of, 102. 
Therefore, not a conjunction, \ 
Thon, new pronoun, 163. 
Thought, definition of, 10. 
Thy and thtyxe, use of, 161. 
Titles, plurals of, 139. 
To, with the infinitive, 52. 
Transitive verb, 177. 
Trix, termination, 132. 

Uas a consonant, 137. 

Verb, definition of, 18. 
classes of, 176. 
number of, 183. . 
person of, 184. 
auxiliary verbs, 186, 204. 
principal parts of, 186. 
redundant verbs, 259. 



I Verb, defective verbs, 259. 

conjugation of, 187. 

compound forms of, 187, 188. 

mode of, 182. 

tense of, 180. 

voice of, 195. 

parsing of, 205. 

errors in use of, 206. 
Vixen, old feminine of fox, 131. 
Voice, definition of, 196. 

kinds of, 196. 

intransitive verbs without, 196. 

the passive form, 196. 

form without voice, 197. 

regular passive, 198. 

idiomatic passive, 200. 

We, as used by editors, 161. 
When, uses of, 101. 
Where, uses of, 101. 
While, uses of, 101. 

You, its use in the singular, 162. 



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